# Copyright 2023 The JAX Authors.
#
# Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
# you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
# You may obtain a copy of the License at
#
#     https://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
#
# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
# distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
# See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
# limitations under the License.

"""Module for lowering JAX to Mosaic-compatible MLIR dialects."""
from __future__ import annotations

from collections.abc import Callable, Sequence
import contextlib
import dataclasses
import functools
import string
from typing import Any, Hashable

import jax
from jax import api_util
from jax import lax
from jax import tree_util
from jax._src import ad_util
from jax._src import checkify
from jax._src import core as jax_core
from jax._src import custom_derivatives
from jax._src import debugging
from jax._src import dtypes
from jax._src import linear_util as lu
from jax._src import mesh as mesh_lib
from jax._src import pjit
from jax._src import prng
from jax._src import source_info_util
from jax._src import state
from jax._src import traceback_util
from jax._src.cloud_tpu_init import is_cloud_tpu_older_than
from jax._src.export._export import export
from jax._src.interpreters import mlir
from jax._src.interpreters import partial_eval as pe
from jax._src.lax import lax as lax_internal
from jax._src.lax.control_flow import for_loop
from jax._src.lib import version as jaxlib_version
from jax._src.lib.mlir import ir
from jax._src.lib.mlir.dialects import arith
from jax._src.lib.mlir.dialects import func
from jax._src.lib.mlir.dialects import math
from jax._src.lib.mlir.dialects import memref
from jax._src.lib.mlir.dialects import scf
from jax._src.lib.mlir.dialects import vector
from jax._src.pallas import core as pallas_core
from jax._src.pallas import pallas_call
from jax._src.pallas import primitives
from jax._src.pallas import utils as pallas_utils
from jax._src.pallas.mosaic import core as tpu_core
from jax._src.pallas.mosaic import error_handling
from jax._src.pallas.mosaic import primitives as tpu_primitives
from jax._src.pallas.mosaic import random as pl_random
from jax._src.state import discharge as state_discharge
from jax._src.state import indexing
from jax._src.state import primitives as state_primitives
from jax._src.state.types import RefBitcaster, RefReshaper
from jax._src.state.utils import dtype_bitwidth
from jax._src.typing import Array, DTypeLike
from jax._src.util import foreach
from jax._src.util import safe_map
from jax._src.util import safe_zip
from jax._src.util import split_list
from jax._src.util import unzip2
from jax.experimental.mosaic.dialects import tpu
import jax.numpy as jnp
from jaxlib.mlir.ir import Module
import numpy as np

# TODO(sharadmv): enable type checking
# mypy: ignore-errors

NDIndexer = indexing.NDIndexer
TPUMemorySpace = tpu_core.TPUMemorySpace
MemorySpace = pallas_core.MemorySpace | TPUMemorySpace
VMEM = tpu_core.TPUMemorySpace.VMEM
SMEM = tpu_core.TPUMemorySpace.SMEM
# Booleans are stored as the following type in memrefs.
BOOL_MEMREF_TYPE = np.dtype('int32')

# The value interpreted as a dynamic dimension by MLIR.
MLIR_DYNAMIC = -9223372036854775808

# TODO(mvoz): Find a way to make this a contract we can share with the
# export specialization step in XLA export.
DIM_UPPER_BOUND = np.iinfo(np.int32).max
DIM_LOWER_BOUND = -128

partial = functools.partial
map, unsafe_map = safe_map, map  # pylint: disable=redefined-builtin
zip, unsafe_zip = safe_zip, zip  # pylint: disable=redefined-builtin


@dataclasses.dataclass
class MeshContext:
  mesh_shape: tuple[int, ...]
  axis_names: tuple[str, ...]
  mesh_strides: tuple[int, ...]

# Note - On Export Placeholders
#
# Since the vector dialect used by Mosaic does not support dynamic shapes,
# we replace all top-level symbolic dimensions with placeholder
# constants (between max(int32) - 128 and max(int32)) and we keep a
# mapping from the placeholder constants to SHLO functions that encode
# the symbolic dimension expression, as a function of the dimension
# variables.
#
# The calling convention of the produced MLIR module is the same as
# regular mosaic module, except we add on two new attributes to the custom call
# *per* intermediary placeholder dimension.
#
# The attributes are:
#
# tpu.dynamic_dimension_mapping_arg_name_<placeholder>
# tpu.dynamic_dimension_mapping_module_<placeholder>
#
# The first attribute is a comma-separated list of the dimension variables
# that are used to compute the symbolic dimension expression for the
# placeholder. The second attribute is the MLIR module that contains the
# SHLO functions that compute the symbolic dimension expression for the
# placeholder.
class LoweringDynamicShapeEnv:
  dim_expr_to_placeholder: dict[shape_poly._DimExpr, int] = {}
  placeholder_to_dim_expr: dict[int, shape_poly._DimExpr] = {}

  def to_placeholder(self, dim_expr: Any) -> ir.Value:
    if jax_core.is_constant_dim(dim_expr):
      # avoid ints, these are not dynamic
      return dim_expr
    if dim_expr not in self.dim_expr_to_placeholder:
      next_val = DIM_UPPER_BOUND - len(self.dim_expr_to_placeholder)
      if next_val < DIM_LOWER_BOUND:
        # In practice, even with the largest of programs, we see rarely see
        # anything even close to this limit. It is arbitrary, and can be safely
        # increased if needed.
        raise ValueError(
            "Too many dynamic shapes in the input. Mosaic currently only"
            " supports up to 128 dynamic dimension values."
        )
      self.dim_expr_to_placeholder[dim_expr] = next_val
      # Reverse mapping - this is consumed to generate a table that is either
      # input<>placeholder or intermediary computation<>placeholder.
      self.placeholder_to_dim_expr[next_val] = dim_expr
    return self.dim_expr_to_placeholder[dim_expr]


@dataclasses.dataclass
class LoweringContext:
  ir_context: ir.Context
  grid_sizes: tuple[int, ...]  # Includes both user and vmap axes.
  grid_names: tuple[Hashable, ...] | None
  mapped_dims: tuple[int, ...]  # Indices of vmapped grid dimensions.
  user_grid_indices: Sequence[ir.Value] | None
  block_shapes: list[tuple[int | pallas_core.Mapped, ...]]
  name_stack: source_info_util.NameStack
  mesh_context: MeshContext | None
  replace = dataclasses.replace
  traceback_caches: mlir.TracebackCaches
  for_verification: bool
  forward_compatible: bool
  dynamic_shape_replacement_fn: Callable[
      [tuple[jax.DimSize, ...]], tuple[int, ...]
  ]

  @property
  def grid_rank(self):
    return len(self.grid_sizes)

  @contextlib.contextmanager
  def grid_name_context(self):
    # TODO(b/355036977): generalize this across other platforms
    if not self.grid_names:
      yield
      return
    grid_names = self.grid_names
    valid_grid_sizes = tuple(
        d for i, d in enumerate(self.grid_sizes) if i not in self.mapped_dims
    )
    grid_env = zip(grid_names, valid_grid_sizes)
    with jax_core.extend_axis_env_nd(grid_env):
      yield


@dataclasses.dataclass
class LoweringRuleContext:
  lowering_context: LoweringContext
  avals_in: Sequence[jax_core.AbstractValue]
  avals_out: Sequence[jax_core.AbstractValue]
  block_shapes: Sequence[tuple[int | pallas_core.Mapped, ...] | None]
  replace = dataclasses.replace

  @property
  def forward_compatible(self):
    return self.lowering_context.forward_compatible


def _memory_space_to_tpu_memory_space(memory_space: MemorySpace | None
                                     ) -> TPUMemorySpace:
  match memory_space:
    case None:
      # We pick VMEM as the default one when no memory space is
      # specified
      return TPUMemorySpace.VMEM
    case pallas_core.MemorySpace.ANY:
      # Map the general ANY memory space to TPU ANY memory space
      return TPUMemorySpace.ANY
    case pallas_core.MemorySpace.ERROR | pallas_core.MemorySpace.INDEX:
      return TPUMemorySpace.SMEM
    case TPUMemorySpace():
      # Leave the memory space unchanged
      return memory_space
    case _:
      raise ValueError(f"Invalid memory space: {memory_space}")


def _memory_space_to_mosaic_attribute(memory_space: MemorySpace | None
                                      ) -> ir.Attribute:
  tpu_memory_space = _memory_space_to_tpu_memory_space(memory_space)
  return ir.Attribute.parse(f"#tpu.memory_space<{tpu_memory_space}>")

def _dtype_to_ir_type(dtype: jnp.dtype,
                      is_kernel_boundary: bool = False) -> ir.Type:
  if jnp.issubdtype(dtype, pallas_core.semaphore_dtype):
    if jnp.issubdtype(dtype, tpu_core.dma_semaphore):
      return ir.Type.parse("!tpu.dma_semaphore")
    elif jnp.issubdtype(dtype, pallas_core.semaphore):
      return ir.Type.parse("!tpu.semaphore")
    elif jnp.issubdtype(dtype, pallas_core.barrier_semaphore):
      return ir.Type.parse("!tpu.semaphore")
    else:
      raise NotImplementedError
  if is_kernel_boundary and jnp.issubdtype(dtype, jnp.dtype('bool')):
    dtype = BOOL_MEMREF_TYPE
  # TODO(justinfu): Remove after mosaic supports unsigned types.
  # This conversion makes mosaic interpret all unsigned types as signed types.
  type =  mlir.dtype_to_ir_type(dtype)
  if isinstance(type, ir.IntegerType):
    return ir.IntegerType.get_signless(type.width)
  else:
    return type


def aval_to_ir_type(
    dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
    aval,
    shape=None,
    memory_space: MemorySpace | None = None,
    is_kernel_boundary: bool = False,
):
  if isinstance(aval, tpu_core.AbstractSemaphore):
    if aval.sem_type is tpu_core.SemaphoreType.DMA:
      sem_type = ir.Type.parse("!tpu.dma_semaphore")
    elif aval.sem_type is tpu_core.SemaphoreType.REGULAR:
      sem_type = ir.Type.parse("!tpu.semaphore")
    elif aval.sem_type is tpu_core.SemaphoreType.BARRIER:
      sem_type = ir.Type.parse("!tpu.semaphore")
    else:
      raise ValueError(f"Cannot allocate {aval.sem_type}.")
    memspace = _memory_space_to_mosaic_attribute(TPUMemorySpace.SEMAPHORE)
    return ir.MemRefType.get((), sem_type, memory_space=memspace)
  if dtypes.issubdtype(aval.dtype, dtypes.prng_key):
    shape = aval.dtype._impl.key_shape
    if pl_random.is_pallas_impl(aval.dtype._impl):
      if memory_space is None:
        memory_space = TPUMemorySpace.SMEM
      if memory_space != TPUMemorySpace.SMEM:
        raise ValueError(
            f"PRNG keys must be stored in SMEM. Got {memory_space}"
        )
    memspace = _memory_space_to_mosaic_attribute(memory_space)
    return ir.MemRefType.get(shape, _dtype_to_ir_type(np.dtype(np.uint32)),
                             memory_space=memspace)
  if isinstance(aval, state.AbstractRef):
    if shape is None:
      shape = aval.shape
    memspace = _memory_space_to_mosaic_attribute(memory_space)
    shape = dynamic_shape_replacement_fn(shape)
    return ir.MemRefType.get(shape,
      _dtype_to_ir_type(aval.dtype, is_kernel_boundary=True),
      memory_space=memspace)
  if isinstance(aval, jax_core.ShapedArray):
    if shape is None:
      shape = aval.shape
    if not shape:
      return _dtype_to_ir_type(
          aval.dtype, is_kernel_boundary=is_kernel_boundary)
    shape = dynamic_shape_replacement_fn(shape)
    return ir.VectorType.get(
        shape,
        _dtype_to_ir_type(aval.dtype, is_kernel_boundary=is_kernel_boundary))
  raise NotImplementedError(aval)


def ir_constant(x, mlir_type=None):
  if not hasattr(x, "dtype"):
    if isinstance(x, int):
      x = np.array(x, np.int32)
    elif isinstance(x, float):
      x = np.array(x, np.float32)
  if not mlir_type:
    mlir_type = _dtype_to_ir_type(x.dtype)
  if isinstance(x, int) or np.issubdtype(x.dtype, np.integer):
    return arith.constant(mlir_type, ir.IntegerAttr.get(mlir_type, int(x)))
  elif isinstance(x, float) or x.dtype == np.float32:
    return arith.constant(mlir_type, ir.FloatAttr.get(mlir_type, float(x)))
  elif x.dtype == jnp.bfloat16:
    return arith.constant(mlir_type, ir.FloatAttr.get(mlir_type, float(x)))
  elif x.dtype == jnp.bool_:
    return arith.constant(mlir_type, ir.BoolAttr.get(bool(x)))
  raise NotImplementedError(x.dtype)


lowering_rules = {}
skip_mlir_conversions = set()

def _get_aval_physical_dtype_shape(aval):
  dtype_physical_shape = jax_core.physical_aval(aval).shape[
      len(aval.shape) :
  ]
  return dtype_physical_shape


def _get_arg_type(
    dynamic_shape_replacement_fn: Callable[
        [tuple[jax.DimSize, ...]], tuple[jax.DimSize, ...]
    ],
    aval,
    block_mapping: pallas_core.BlockMapping | None,
):
  memory_space = None
  if isinstance(aval, pallas_core.AbstractMemoryRef):
    memory_space = aval.memory_space
    # We assume unannotated memory refs are in VMEM
    if memory_space is None:
      memory_space = TPUMemorySpace.VMEM
  if isinstance(aval, tpu_core.AbstractSemaphore):
    return aval_to_ir_type(dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, aval), None
  # TODO(necula): clean this None block_mapping
  if block_mapping is None:
    return (
        aval_to_ir_type(
            dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, aval, memory_space=memory_space
        ),
        aval.shape,
    )
  shape = tuple(1 if b is pallas_core.mapped else b for b in block_mapping.block_shape)
  return (
      aval_to_ir_type(
          dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
          aval,
          shape=shape,
          memory_space=memory_space,
      ),
      block_mapping.block_shape,
  )


def _canonicalize_dimension_semantic(
    dimension_semantic: str | tpu_core.GridDimensionSemantics,
) -> str:
  if isinstance(dimension_semantic, tpu_core.GridDimensionSemantics):
    return dimension_semantic.value
  return dimension_semantic


@dataclasses.dataclass(init=False)
class MosaicGridMapping:
  grid: tuple[int, ...] | None
  grid_names: tuple[Hashable, ...] | None
  jaxpr: jax_core.Jaxpr
  block_mappings: tuple[pallas_core.BlockMapping | None, ...]
  mapped_dims: tuple[int, ...]
  scalar_prefetch_types: tuple[ir.Type, ...]
  operand_types: tuple[ir.Type, ...]
  scratch_types: tuple[ir.Type, ...]
  grid_types: tuple[ir.Type, ...]
  scalar_prefetch_block_shapes: tuple[tuple[int, ...], ...]
  operand_block_shapes: tuple[tuple[int, ...], ...]
  scratch_block_shapes: tuple[tuple[int, ...], ...]
  mesh_info: MeshInfo | None
  get_grid_indices: Callable | None

  def __init__(
      self,
      jaxpr: jax_core.Jaxpr,
      grid_mapping: pallas_core.GridMapping,
      dimension_semantics: tuple[str | tpu_core.GridDimensionSemantics, ...] | None,
      mesh: mesh_lib.Mesh | None,
      dynamic_shape_replacement_fn: Callable[
          [tuple[jax.DimSize, ...]], tuple[int, ...]
      ],
  ):
    self.grid = grid_mapping.grid
    self.grid_names = grid_mapping.grid_names
    self.jaxpr = jaxpr
    self.block_mappings = grid_mapping.block_mappings
    self.mapped_dims = grid_mapping.vmapped_dims
    # TODO(mvoz): Generalize to not need this
    user_grid = tuple(
        g for i, g in enumerate(self.grid) if i not in self.mapped_dims
    )
    if dimension_semantics is None:
      dimension_semantics = ("arbitrary",) * len(user_grid)
    dimension_semantics = tuple(
        _canonicalize_dimension_semantic(s) for s in dimension_semantics
    )
    if len(user_grid) != len(dimension_semantics):
      raise ValueError(
          "Must have dimension semantics for each dimension of the grid."
      )
    assert len(self.mapped_dims) + len(dimension_semantics) == len(
        self.grid
    ), (
        f"Misconfigured grid: {self.mapped_dims=}, {dimension_semantics=},"
        f" {self.grid=}"
    )
    # dimension_semantics is user provided and won't take into account vmap
    # dimensions. Here we add in parallel dimensions for the vmaps.
    semantics_iter = iter(dimension_semantics)
    self._dimension_semantics = tuple(
        next(semantics_iter) if i not in self.mapped_dims else "parallel"
        for i in range(len(self.grid))
    )

    in_avals = [invar.aval for invar in self.jaxpr.invars]
    # jaxpr has signature [*scalar_prefetch, *consts, *in_ops, *out_ops, *scratch]
    scalar_prefetch_avals = in_avals[grid_mapping.slice_index_ops]
    operand_avals = in_avals[grid_mapping.slice_block_ops]
    scratch_avals = in_avals[grid_mapping.slice_scratch_ops]
    self.scalar_prefetch_types, _ = unzip2([
        _get_arg_type(dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, aval, None)
        for aval in scalar_prefetch_avals
    ])
    self.scalar_prefetch_block_shapes = tuple(
        aval.shape for aval in scalar_prefetch_avals)
    self.operand_types, self.operand_block_shapes = unzip2([
        _get_arg_type(dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, aval, block_mapping)
        for aval, block_mapping in zip(operand_avals, self.block_mappings)
    ])
    self.scratch_types, _ = unzip2([
        _get_arg_type(dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, aval, None)
        for aval in scratch_avals
    ])
    self.scratch_block_shapes = tuple(
        aval.shape if not isinstance(aval, tpu_core.AbstractSemaphore) else None
        for aval in scratch_avals
    )
    self.grid_types, _ = unzip2([
        _get_arg_type(
            dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
            pallas_core.index_map_grid_aval,
            None,
        )
        for _ in range(len(self.grid))
    ])
    self._prepare_mesh_info(mesh)

    if grid_mapping.get_grid_indices is None:

      # Avoid using self.mapped_dims within the function, since doing so will
      # introduce a self->_get_grid_indices->self reference cycle that means
      # MosaicGridMapping instances can only ever be deleted by GC, rather than
      # by their reference counts going to 0.
      mapped_dims = self.mapped_dims
      def _get_grid_indices(indices, maybe_include_mapped_dims: bool):
        if maybe_include_mapped_dims:
          return indices
        return tuple(
            idx for i, idx in enumerate(indices) if i not in mapped_dims
        )

      self.get_grid_indices = _get_grid_indices
    else:
      self.get_grid_indices = grid_mapping.get_grid_indices

  def _prepare_mesh_info(self, mesh: mesh_lib.Mesh | None):
    if not self.has_communication:
      self.mesh_info = None
      return
    if mesh is None:
      raise ValueError(
          "Cannot use communication in pallas_call without shard_map."
      )
    axis_names = mesh.axis_names
    if self.grid_names is not None:
      if any(a in self.grid_names for a in axis_names):
        raise ValueError(
            "Cannot shadow axis mesh axis names with grid names. mesh axis"
            f" names: {mesh.axis_names}, grid names: {self.grid_names}"
        )
    # We need mesh <-> logical translation tables. Since the logical IDs are
    # just linearized versions of the mesh IDs, we create those tables.
    mesh_strides = pallas_utils.strides_from_shape(tuple(
        mesh.shape[a] for a in axis_names
    ))
    mesh_shape = tuple(mesh.shape.values())
    self.mesh_info = MeshInfo(mesh_shape, axis_names, mesh_strides)

  def maybe_compress_grid(self):
    # If we have many leading parallel dimensions, we should "compress" them
    # into one so we can load balance across cores as best as we can.
    # TODO(sharadmv): implement this optimization
    pass

  @functools.cached_property
  def has_communication(self) -> bool:
    nonlocal_axis_names = set()
    def _get_nonlocal_axis_names(jaxpr: jax_core.Jaxpr):
      return {
          e.name
          for e in jaxpr.effects
          if isinstance(e, jax_core.NamedAxisEffect)
          and (not self.grid_names or e.name not in self.grid_names)
      }
    nonlocal_axis_names.update(_get_nonlocal_axis_names(self.jaxpr))
    for bm in self.block_mappings:
      if bm is not None:
        nonlocal_axis_names.update(_get_nonlocal_axis_names(bm.index_map_jaxpr))
    return bool(nonlocal_axis_names)

  def get_extra_args(self) -> tuple[Any, ...]:
    return ()

  def get_dimension_semantics(self) -> ir.ArrayAttr:

    def _get_semantics(s: str | None) -> str:
      if s is None:
        return "#tpu.dimension_semantics<arbitrary>"
      return f"#tpu.dimension_semantics<{s}>"

    return ir.ArrayAttr.get(
        map(
            ir.Attribute.parse,
            map(_get_semantics, self._dimension_semantics),
        )
    )

@dataclasses.dataclass
class MeshInfo:
  mesh_shape: tuple[int, ...]
  axis_names: list[str]
  mesh_strides: tuple[int, ...]


def _check_block_mappings(
    block_mappings: tuple[pallas_core.BlockMapping, ...],
    lowering_context: mlir.LoweringRuleContext,
    debug_info: jax_core.DebugInfo,
) -> None:
  del lowering_context  # originally needed for forward compat
  for bm in block_mappings:
    rank = len(bm.block_shape)
    # TODO(necula): add tests for SMEM blocks with trivial windowing
    # We support scalars too
    if (bm.block_aval.memory_space == tpu_core.TPUMemorySpace.SMEM and
        bm.has_trivial_window()):
      continue
    if bm.block_aval.memory_space == tpu_core.TPUMemorySpace.SEMAPHORE:
      continue

    def err_details():
      return (f"Block spec for {bm.origin} in pallas_call {debug_info.func_src_info} "
              "has block shape "
              f"{bm.block_shape}, array shape {bm.array_shape_dtype.shape}, "
              # TODO(necula): add index_map source location info
              f"and index_map {bm.index_map_jaxpr.jaxpr}, in "
              f"memory space {bm.block_aval.memory_space}."
              "\nSee details at https://docs.jax.dev/en/latest/pallas/grid_blockspec.html#pallas-blockspec")
    if rank < 1:
      raise ValueError(
          "The Pallas TPU lowering currently supports only blocks of "
          "rank >= 1. " + err_details())

    if (bm.block_aval.memory_space == tpu_core.TPUMemorySpace.ANY and
        not bm.has_trivial_window()):
      raise ValueError(
          "The Pallas TPU lowering currently supports in memory space ANY "
          "only blocks having the same block shape as the array shape "
          "and a trivial index_map (returning all 0s)." + err_details())

    unmapped_bs = [
        1 if bs is pallas_core.mapped else bs for bs in bm.block_shape]
    bs0, as0 = unmapped_bs[-1], bm.array_shape_dtype.shape[-1]
    if rank >= 2:
      bs1, as1 = unmapped_bs[-2], bm.array_shape_dtype.shape[-2]
    else:
      bs1, as1 = 1, 1

    if rank >= 2:
      evenly_divisible = (
          (bs0 == as0 or bs0 % 128 == 0) and
          (bs1 == as1 or bs1 % 8 == 0)
      )
      if not evenly_divisible:
        extra_msg = ""
        if pallas_core.dynamic_shapes_export_enabled():
          extra_msg = (
              " In dynamic shape export - your kernel symbolic args must be"
              " annotated with constraints where the computation *after*"
              " applying any grid mapping is divisible by 8 and 128"
              " respectively. Ex: (mod(floordiv(m_dim, grid_size), 8) == 0))"
          )
        raise ValueError(
            "The Pallas TPU lowering currently requires that the last two "
            "dimensions of your block shape are divisible by 8 and 128 "
            "respectively, or be equal to the respective dimensions of the "
            "overall array. "
            + extra_msg
            + err_details()
        )
    else:
      assert rank == 1
      # bools get a bitwidth of 32 due to how mosaic handles them
      if bm.array_shape_dtype.dtype == jnp.bool_:
        bitwidth = 32
      else:
        bitwidth = lax_internal._bit_width(bm.array_shape_dtype.dtype)
      packing = 32 // bitwidth
      tiling_size = 128 * packing
      evenly_divisible = (bs0 == as0 or bs0 % tiling_size == 0)
      if not evenly_divisible:
        raise ValueError(
            "The Pallas TPU lowering currently requires that rank 1 block"
            " shapes, either 1) the first (and only) dimension of the block"
            " shape is equal to the first (and only) dimension of the array"
            " shape, or 2) the first (and only) dimension of the block shape"
            f" is a multiple of the tiling size ({tiling_size} = 128 * (32 //"
            f" {lax_internal._bit_width(bm.array_shape_dtype.dtype)})) of the"
            " array shape. "
            + err_details()
        )


def lower_jaxpr_to_module(
    lowering_context: mlir.LoweringRuleContext,
    ctx: ir.Context,
    grid_mapping: pallas_core.GridMapping,
    jaxpr: jax_core.Jaxpr,
    *,
    dimension_semantics: (
        tuple[str | tpu_core.GridDimensionSemantics, None, ...] | None
    ),
    mesh: mesh_lib.Mesh | None = None,
    for_verification: bool = False,
    dynamic_shape_replacement_enabled: bool = False,
) -> tuple[Module, tuple[Any, ...]]:
  # NOTE: We should bump this periodically
  if is_cloud_tpu_older_than(2025, 1, 10):
    raise RuntimeError(
        "Pallas TPU requires a libTPU version that's at most a month old"
    )
  debug_info = jaxpr.debug_info
  _mosaic_lowering_dynamic_shape_env = None
  if dynamic_shape_replacement_enabled:
    _mosaic_lowering_dynamic_shape_env = LoweringDynamicShapeEnv()

    def dynamic_shape_replacement_fn(
        shape: jax_core.Shape,
    ) -> tuple[int, ...]:
      return tuple(
          _mosaic_lowering_dynamic_shape_env.to_placeholder(dim_expr)
          if jax_core.is_dim(dim_expr)
          else dim_expr
          for dim_expr in shape
      )

  else:
    dynamic_shape_replacement_fn = lambda x: x

  # Verify that we have legal block mappings to catch errors early.
  _check_block_mappings(grid_mapping.block_mappings, lowering_context, debug_info)

  mosaic_grid_mapping = MosaicGridMapping(
      jaxpr,
      grid_mapping,
      dimension_semantics,
      mesh,
      dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
  )
  mosaic_grid_mapping.maybe_compress_grid()
  m = ir.Module.create()
  attrs = m.operation.attributes
  module_name = mlir.sanitize_name(debug_info.func_name)
  attrs["sym_name"] = ir.StringAttr.get(module_name)
  sym_tab = ir.SymbolTable(m.operation)

  func_op = lower_jaxpr_to_func(
      ctx,
      jaxpr,
      mosaic_grid_mapping=mosaic_grid_mapping,
      name="main",
      for_verification=for_verification,
      forward_compatible=lowering_context.is_forward_compat(),
      dynamic_shape_replacement_fn=dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
      dynamic_shape_replacement_enabled=dynamic_shape_replacement_enabled,
  )
  m.body.append(func_op)
  sym_tab.insert(func_op)
  window_params = []
  static_grid = None
  grid = mosaic_grid_mapping.grid
  if grid:
    for i, bm in enumerate(grid_mapping.block_mappings):
      func_name = f"transform_{i}"
      # ANY and SEMAPHORE operands don't support windowing and require empty window_params.
      tpu_memory_space = _memory_space_to_tpu_memory_space(
          bm.block_aval.memory_space)
      if (
          tpu_memory_space == tpu_core.TPUMemorySpace.ANY
          or tpu_memory_space == tpu_core.TPUMemorySpace.SEMAPHORE
      ):
        # We checked above that the block does not require windowing.
        window_params.append(ir.DictAttr.get())
        continue

      mlir_func = lower_jaxpr_to_transform_func(
          ctx,
          bm.index_map_jaxpr.jaxpr,
          bm.block_aval,
          name=func_name,
          mosaic_grid_mapping=mosaic_grid_mapping,
          for_verification=for_verification,
          forward_compatible=lowering_context.is_forward_compat(),
          dynamic_shape_replacement_fn=dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
      )
      assert mlir_func.verify(), mlir_func
      block_shape = [
          1 if b is pallas_core.mapped else b for b in bm.block_shape
      ]

      # Force single-buffering pipelining for trivial windowing in VMEM.
      pipeline_mode = bm.pipeline_mode
      if (
          tpu_memory_space == tpu_core.TPUMemorySpace.VMEM
          and bm.has_trivial_window()
      ):
        pipeline_mode = pallas_core.Buffered(1)

      # If we have an extended dtype, we need to add the block shape for the
      # remaining physical dtype.
      block_shape += list(_get_aval_physical_dtype_shape(bm.block_aval.inner_aval))
      block_shape = dynamic_shape_replacement_fn(block_shape)
      window_shape = ir.DenseI64ArrayAttr.get(block_shape)
      block_params = dict(
          window_bounds=window_shape,
          transform_indices=ir.FlatSymbolRefAttr.get(func_name),
      )
      if isinstance(bm.indexing_mode, pallas_core.Unblocked):
        if bm.indexing_mode.padding is None:
          pad_low = pad_high = [0] * len(bm.block_shape)
        else:
          pad_low, pad_high = map(list, zip(*bm.indexing_mode.padding))
        block_params["window_kind"] = ir.Attribute.parse(
            f"#tpu.element_window<{pad_low},{pad_high}>"
        )
      if pipeline_mode is not None:
        if not isinstance(pipeline_mode, pallas_core.Buffered):
          raise LoweringException(
              f"Unsupported pipeline mode: {pipeline_mode}."
          )
        buffer_count = pipeline_mode.buffer_count
        if buffer_count < 1 or buffer_count > 2:
          raise LoweringException(
              "Only single (1) and double (2) buffering are supported. Got"
              f" {buffer_count}."
          )
        pipeline_mode_str = "synchronous" if buffer_count == 1 else "double_buffered"
        block_params["pipeline_mode"] = ir.Attribute.parse(
            f"#tpu.pipeline_mode<{pipeline_mode_str}>"
        )
      window_params.append(ir.DictAttr.get(block_params))
      m.body.append(mlir_func)
      sym_tab.insert(mlir_func)
    func_op.attributes["window_params"] = ir.ArrayAttr.get(window_params)

    static_grid = [
        MLIR_DYNAMIC if b is pallas_core.dynamic_grid_dim else b for b in grid
    ]
    static_grid = dynamic_shape_replacement_fn(static_grid)
    func_op.attributes["iteration_bounds"] = ir.DenseI64ArrayAttr.get(static_grid)
  func_op.attributes["scalar_prefetch"] = ir.IntegerAttr.get(
      ir.IntegerType.get_signless(64), len(mosaic_grid_mapping.scalar_prefetch_types))
  func_op.attributes["scratch_operands"] = ir.IntegerAttr.get(
      ir.IntegerType.get_signless(64), len(mosaic_grid_mapping.scratch_types))
  func_op.attributes["dimension_semantics"] = (
      mosaic_grid_mapping.get_dimension_semantics()
  )
  if dynamic_shape_replacement_enabled:
    if _mosaic_lowering_dynamic_shape_env is None:
      raise ValueError(
          "Dynamic shape env is None, invariant violated. Unreachable?"
      )

    # Now we can use jax to compute the dynamic shape graph

    if static_grid is not None:
      grid_vars = [
          _mosaic_lowering_dynamic_shape_env.placeholder_to_dim_expr.get(g, g)
          for g in static_grid
      ]
    else:
      grid_vars = []

    invars = [invar.aval for invar in jaxpr.invars]
    # Faux shape for grid, just to get the avals
    invars.append(jax.ShapeDtypeStruct(grid_vars, jax.numpy.int32))
    args_dimvars = shape_poly.all_dim_vars(invars)

    # This is dimexpr var -> placeholder value for when we jit the dim expr
    env: dict[str, int] = {}
    for aval in args_dimvars:
      env[aval] = _mosaic_lowering_dynamic_shape_env.to_placeholder(aval)

    for (
        placeholder,
        dim_expr,
    ) in _mosaic_lowering_dynamic_shape_env.placeholder_to_dim_expr.items():
      top_level_names = list(env.keys())
      if dim_expr not in top_level_names:
        jitted_eval = jax.jit(
            jax_core.evaluate_shape,
            static_argnames=(
                "shape",
                "dim_vars",
            ),
            keep_unused=True,
        )
        stablehlo = export(
            jitted_eval, platforms=[str(jax.devices()[0].platform)]
        )(
            (dim_expr,), tuple(args_dimvars), *(env[v] for v in args_dimvars)
        ).mlir_module()
        arg_name = args_dimvars
        # See Note - On Export Placeholders for more details.
        m.operation.attributes[
            "tpu.dynamic_dimension_mapping_module_" + str(placeholder)
        ] = ir.StringAttr.get(str(stablehlo))
        arg_name_str = ",".join(arg_name)
        m.operation.attributes[
            "tpu.dynamic_dimension_mapping_arg_name_" + str(placeholder)
        ] = ir.StringAttr.get(arg_name_str)
  return m, mosaic_grid_mapping.get_extra_args()


def lower_jaxpr_to_transform_func(
    ctx: ir.Context,
    jaxpr: jax_core.Jaxpr,
    aval: jax_core.AbstractValue,
    *,
    name: str,
    mosaic_grid_mapping: MosaicGridMapping,
    for_verification: bool,
     forward_compatible: bool,
    dynamic_shape_replacement_fn: (
        Callable[[tuple[jax.DimSize, ...]], tuple[int, ...]] | None
    ) = None,
) -> func.FuncOp:
  num_grid = len(mosaic_grid_mapping.grid_types)
  arg_types = [
      *mosaic_grid_mapping.grid_types,
      *mosaic_grid_mapping.scalar_prefetch_types,
  ]
  def body_func(*args):
    grid_indices, scalar_prefetch = split_list(args, [num_grid])
    jaxpr_indices = mosaic_grid_mapping.get_grid_indices(
        grid_indices, maybe_include_mapped_dims=True
    )
    arg_block_shapes = [
        *[()] * len(jaxpr_indices),
        *mosaic_grid_mapping.scalar_prefetch_block_shapes,
    ]

    mesh_info = mosaic_grid_mapping.mesh_info
    if mesh_info is not None:
      mesh_context = MeshContext(
          mesh_info.mesh_shape, mesh_info.axis_names, mesh_info.mesh_strides
      )
    else:
      mesh_context = None
    lowering_context = LoweringContext(
        ctx,
        mosaic_grid_mapping.grid,
        mosaic_grid_mapping.grid_names,
        mosaic_grid_mapping.mapped_dims,
        None,
        arg_block_shapes,
        source_info_util.NameStack(),
        mesh_context=mesh_context,
        traceback_caches=mlir.TracebackCaches(),
        for_verification=for_verification,
        forward_compatible=forward_compatible,
        dynamic_shape_replacement_fn=dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
    )
    out = jaxpr_subcomp(lowering_context, jaxpr, *jaxpr_indices,
                        *scalar_prefetch)
    assert isinstance(aval, state.AbstractRef), aval
    # If we have an extended dtype, we need to add 0s for the block indices
    # for the remaining physical dtype.
    out += [
        ir_constant(0, mlir_type=_dtype_to_ir_type(jnp.dtype("int32")))
    ] * len(_get_aval_physical_dtype_shape(aval.inner_aval))
    return out

  body_func.__name__ = name
  body = func.FuncOp.from_py_func(*arg_types, name=name)(body_func)
  try:
    body.func_op.verify()
  except ir.MLIRError as e:
    raise error_handling.mlir_error_to_verification_error(e) from e
  return body.func_op


def lower_jaxpr_to_func(
    ctx: ir.Context,
    jaxpr: jax_core.Jaxpr,
    *,
    mosaic_grid_mapping: MosaicGridMapping,
    name: str,
    for_verification: bool,
    forward_compatible: bool,
    dynamic_shape_replacement_fn: (
        Callable[[tuple[jax.DimSize, ...]], tuple[int, ...]] | None
    ) = None,
    dynamic_shape_replacement_enabled: bool = False,
) -> func.FuncOp:
  num_grid = len(mosaic_grid_mapping.grid_types)
  num_scalar_prefetch = len(mosaic_grid_mapping.scalar_prefetch_types)
  arg_types = [
      *mosaic_grid_mapping.grid_types,
      *mosaic_grid_mapping.scalar_prefetch_types,
      *mosaic_grid_mapping.operand_types,
      *mosaic_grid_mapping.scratch_types,
  ]
  arg_block_shapes = [
      *mosaic_grid_mapping.scalar_prefetch_block_shapes,
      *mosaic_grid_mapping.operand_block_shapes,
      *mosaic_grid_mapping.scratch_block_shapes,
  ]
  def body_func(*args):
    grid_indices, scalar_prefetch, operands_and_scratch = split_list(
        args, [num_grid, num_scalar_prefetch])
    jaxpr_indices = mosaic_grid_mapping.get_grid_indices(
        grid_indices, maybe_include_mapped_dims=False
    )
    mesh_info = mosaic_grid_mapping.mesh_info
    if mesh_info is not None:
      mesh_context = MeshContext(
          mesh_info.mesh_shape, mesh_info.axis_names, mesh_info.mesh_strides
      )
    else:
      mesh_context = None
    lowering_context = LoweringContext(
        ctx,
        mosaic_grid_mapping.grid,
        mosaic_grid_mapping.grid_names,
        mosaic_grid_mapping.mapped_dims,
        jaxpr_indices,
        arg_block_shapes,
        source_info_util.NameStack(),
        mesh_context=mesh_context,
        traceback_caches=mlir.TracebackCaches(),
        for_verification=for_verification,
        forward_compatible=forward_compatible,
        dynamic_shape_replacement_fn=dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
    )
    return jaxpr_subcomp(
        lowering_context, jaxpr, *scalar_prefetch, *operands_and_scratch
    )
  body_func.__name__ = name
  body = func.FuncOp.from_py_func(*arg_types, name=name)(body_func)
  if dynamic_shape_replacement_enabled:
    # Skip verification for dynamic shape replacement - you can potentially
    # produce ir like ex: add(x[placeholder_0, placeholder_1], y[128, 128])
    # which is not valid, but we don't care since we'll run the verifier again
    # after the dynamic shape replacement pass.
    return body.func_op
  try:
    body.func_op.verify()
  except ir.MLIRError as e:
    raise error_handling.mlir_error_to_verification_error(e) from e
  return body.func_op


def lower_fun(fun: Callable, *, multiple_results: bool) -> Callable:
  def f_lowered(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args, **params):
    f = fun if multiple_results else lambda *args, **kw: (fun(*args, **kw),)
    wrapped_fun = lu.wrap_init(
        f, params,
        debug_info=api_util.debug_info("mosaic lower_fun", f,
                                       args, params))
    jaxpr, _, consts, () = pe.trace_to_jaxpr_dynamic(wrapped_fun, ctx.avals_in)
    if consts:
      raise NotImplementedError
    jaxpr = pe.convert_constvars_jaxpr(jaxpr)
    lowering_context = ctx.lowering_context.replace(
        block_shapes=ctx.block_shapes)
    out = jaxpr_subcomp(lowering_context, jaxpr, *consts, *args)
    if not multiple_results:
      return out[0]
    return out

  return f_lowered


class LoweringException(Exception):
  pass


def _compute_name_stack_updates(
    old_name_stack: list[str],
    new_name_stack: list[str]
) -> tuple[list[str], list[str]]:
  """Computes the popped/pushed items to the name stack after an update.

  Args:
    old_name_stack: The name stack prior to the update.
    new_name_stack: The name stack after the update.

  Returns:
    popped: A list of names popped from the name stack as part of the update.
    pushed: A list of names pushed to the name stack as part of the update.
  """
  common_prefix_idx = 0
  for i, (old, new) in enumerate(unsafe_zip(old_name_stack, new_name_stack)):
    if old == new:
      common_prefix_idx = i+1
    else:
      break
  return old_name_stack[common_prefix_idx:], new_name_stack[common_prefix_idx:]


def jaxpr_subcomp(
    ctx: LoweringContext, jaxpr: jax_core.Jaxpr, *args: ir.Value
) -> Sequence[ir.Value]:
  assert not jaxpr.constvars
  env = {}
  block_shape_env = {}

  def read_block_shape(atom: jax_core.Atom):
    if isinstance(atom, jax_core.Literal):
      return None
    return block_shape_env.get(atom, None)

  def read_env(atom: jax_core.Atom):
    return atom.val if isinstance(atom, jax_core.Literal) else env[atom]

  def write_env(var: jax_core.Var, val):
    is_valid_type = isinstance(val, (ir.Value, KeyScalarBundle))
    assert is_valid_type, type(val)
    env[var] = val

  for invar, bs in zip(jaxpr.invars, ctx.block_shapes):
    block_shape_env[invar] = bs
  foreach(write_env, jaxpr.invars, args)

  initial_name_stack = [scope.name for scope in ctx.name_stack.stack]
  current_name_stack: list[str] = []
  # TODO(justinfu): Handle transform scopes.
  current_name_stack.extend(initial_name_stack)
  for eqn in jaxpr.eqns:
    invals = map(read_env, eqn.invars)
    source_info = eqn.source_info.replace(
        name_stack=ctx.name_stack + eqn.source_info.name_stack
    )
    loc = mlir._source_info_to_location(ctx, eqn.primitive, source_info)
    with (source_info_util.user_context(eqn.source_info.traceback), loc,
          eqn.ctx.manager):
      if eqn.primitive in lowering_rules:
        if eqn.primitive not in skip_mlir_conversions:
          invals = [_ensure_mlir_value(x, v.aval)
                    for x, v in zip(invals, eqn.invars)]
        block_shapes = map(read_block_shape, eqn.invars)
        rule_context = LoweringRuleContext(
            ctx,
            [v.aval for v in eqn.invars],
            [v.aval for v in eqn.outvars],
            block_shapes,
        )

        # Insert trace_start and trace_stop ops on named_scope boundaries.
        name_stack = [scope.name for scope in source_info.name_stack.stack]
        popped, pushed = _compute_name_stack_updates(
            current_name_stack, name_stack)
        current_name_stack = name_stack
        for _ in popped:
          tpu.TraceStopOp()
        for name in pushed:
          tpu.TraceStartOp(message=name, level=10)

        try:
          ans = lowering_rules[eqn.primitive](
              rule_context, *invals, **eqn.params
          )
        except LoweringException:
          raise  # We only add the extra info to the innermost exception.
        except Exception as e:
          if not pallas_call._verbose_errors_enabled():
            raise
          msg = (f"{type(e).__name__}: {e}\n" +
                "Additional diagnostics: \n" +
                f"Failing jaxpr equation: {eqn}\n")
          new_error = LoweringException(msg)
          # We insert the traceback here so that the user code shows
          # up in the traceback for the post-transform error.
          if source_info.traceback is not None:
            tb = source_info.traceback.as_python_traceback()
            new_error.__traceback__ = traceback_util.filter_traceback(tb)
          raise new_error from e
      else:
        raise NotImplementedError(
            "Unimplemented primitive in Pallas TPU lowering: "
            f"{eqn.primitive.name}. "
            "Please file an issue on https://github.com/jax-ml/jax/issues.")
      if eqn.primitive.multiple_results:
        foreach(write_env, eqn.outvars, ans)
      else:
        write_env(eqn.outvars[0], ans)

  # Drain the name stack at the end of a jaxpr and insert trace_stop ops.
  popped, pushed = _compute_name_stack_updates(
      current_name_stack, initial_name_stack)
  for _ in popped:
    tpu.TraceStopOp()
  assert len(pushed) == 0

  outvals = map(read_env, jaxpr.outvars)
  outvals = [
      ir_constant(x) if isinstance(var, jax_core.Literal) else x
      for x, var in zip(outvals, jaxpr.outvars)
  ]
  return outvals


def _ensure_mlir_value(val, aval):
  if isinstance(val, ir.Value):
    return val
  if isinstance(val, KeyScalarBundle):
    return val
  elif isinstance(val, (np.generic, np.ndarray, int, float)):
    return ir_constant(val, _dtype_to_ir_type(aval.dtype))
  else:
    raise RuntimeError(
        f"Unsupported argument to a JAX primitive of type: {type(val)}"
    )


def _get_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, ref, *idx, tree,
):
  indexers = tree_util.tree_unflatten(tree, idx)
  indexers_avals = tree_util.tree_unflatten(tree, ctx.avals_in[1:])
  # Call _load_lowering_rule (since it's more general)
  ref_aval, *_ = ctx.avals_in
  args_flat, args_tree = tree_util.tree_flatten((ref, indexers, None, None))
  avals_flat = tree_util.tree_leaves((ref_aval, indexers_avals, None, None))
  ctx = ctx.replace(
      avals_in=avals_flat,
      block_shapes=[ctx.block_shapes[0], *[None] * (len(avals_flat) - 1)],
  )
  return _load_lowering_rule(ctx, *args_flat, args_tree=args_tree)


lowering_rules[state_primitives.get_p] = _get_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(state_primitives.get_p)


def _swap_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    ref,
    val,
    *idx,
    tree
):
  indexers = tree_util.tree_unflatten(tree, idx)
  indexers_avals = tree_util.tree_unflatten(tree, ctx.avals_in[2:])
  # Call _masked_swap_lowering_rule (since it's more general)
  ref_aval, val_aval, *_ = ctx.avals_in
  args_flat, args_tree = tree_util.tree_flatten((ref, indexers, val, None))
  avals_flat = tree_util.tree_leaves(
      (ref_aval, indexers_avals, val_aval, None)
  )
  ctx = ctx.replace(
      avals_in=avals_flat,
      block_shapes=[ctx.block_shapes[0], *[None] * (len(avals_flat) - 1)],
  )
  return _masked_swap_lowering_rule(ctx, *args_flat, args_tree=args_tree)

lowering_rules[state_primitives.swap_p] = _swap_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(state_primitives.swap_p)


def _make_index(s):
  if isinstance(s, (int, np.ndarray)):
    return ir_constant(s, ir.IndexType.get())
  if s.type == ir.IndexType.get():
    return s
  return arith.index_cast(ir.IndexType.get(), s)


def _maybe_cast_to_index(cast_to_index, x):
  if cast_to_index:
    return _make_index(x)
  return _ensure_mlir_value(x, aval=pallas_core.index_map_grid_aval)


def _index_to_start_size_stride(
    idx: tuple[indexing.Slice | int | ir.Value, ...], cast_to_index: bool
) -> tuple[ir.Value, int | ir.Value, int, bool]:
  assert not isinstance(idx, slice)
  if isinstance(idx, indexing.Slice):
    start = _maybe_cast_to_index(cast_to_index, idx.start)
    size = idx.size
    stride = idx.stride
    squeeze = False
  elif isinstance(idx, int):
    start = _maybe_cast_to_index(cast_to_index, idx)
    size = 1
    stride = 1
    squeeze = True
  else:
    if np.shape(idx):
      raise ValueError(f"Can only use ()-shaped and slice indexing: {idx}")
    start = _maybe_cast_to_index(cast_to_index, idx)
    size = 1
    stride = 1
    squeeze = True
  return start, size, stride, squeeze


def _indexer_to_start_size_stride(
    indexer: NDIndexer,
    ref_block_shape: tuple[int | pallas_core.Mapped, ...],
    *,
    cast_to_index: bool,
) -> tuple[
    tuple[ir.Value, ...],
    tuple[int | ir.Value, ...],
    tuple[int, ...],
    tuple[bool, ...],
    tuple[int | pallas_core.Mapped, ...],
]:
  indices_iter = iter(indexer.indices)
  starts, sizes, strides, squeeze_dims = [], [], [], []
  for s in ref_block_shape:
    start, size, stride, squeeze_dim = (
        (
            _maybe_cast_to_index(cast_to_index, 0),
            1,
            1,
            True,
        )
        if s is pallas_core.mapped
        else _index_to_start_size_stride(next(indices_iter), cast_to_index)
    )
    starts.append(start)
    sizes.append(size)
    strides.append(stride)
    squeeze_dims.append(squeeze_dim)
  next_index = next(indices_iter, None)
  assert next_index is None, (indexer.indices, ref_block_shape)
  new_ref_block_shape = tuple(s for s, squeeze in zip(sizes, squeeze_dims)
                              if not squeeze)
  return (
      tuple(starts),
      tuple(sizes),
      tuple(strides),
      tuple(squeeze_dims),
      new_ref_block_shape,
  )


def _slice_memref(
    ref: ir.Value,
    indexer: NDIndexer,
    ref_dtype: DTypeLike,
    ref_block_shape: tuple[int | pallas_core.Mapped, ...],
) -> tuple[ir.Value, tuple[int | pallas_core.Mapped, ...]]:
  assert ref_block_shape is not None
  target_shape = indexer.get_indexer_shape()
  starts, sizes, strides, squeeze_dims, ref_block_shape = (
      _indexer_to_start_size_stride(
          indexer,
          ref_block_shape,
          cast_to_index=False,
      )
  )
  if not all((s is None or s == 1) for s in strides):
    raise NotImplementedError("Strided slices of references are unsupported.")
  dynamic_sizes = tuple(s for s in sizes if isinstance(s, ir.Value))
  ir_dynamic_size = ir.ShapedType.get_dynamic_size()
  static_sizes = tuple(s if not isinstance(s, ir.Value)
                       else ir_dynamic_size for s in sizes)
  target_ref_ty = ir.MemRefType.get(
      static_sizes,
      _dtype_to_ir_type(ref_dtype),
      memory_space=ref.type.memory_space,
  )
  out = tpu.memref_slice(target_ref_ty, ref, starts, dynamic_sizes)
  if any(squeeze_dims):
    # We need to squeeze out some dimensions
    static_sizes = tuple(s if not isinstance(s, ir.Value)
                         else ir_dynamic_size for s in target_shape)
    squeezed_ref_ty = ir.MemRefType.get(
        static_sizes,
        _dtype_to_ir_type(ref_dtype),
        memory_space=ref.type.memory_space,
    )
    out = tpu.memref_squeeze(squeezed_ref_ty, out)
  return out, ref_block_shape


def _bitcast_memref(
    ref: ir.Value,
    bitcaster: RefBitcaster,
    ref_dtype: DTypeLike,
    ref_block_shape: tuple[int | pallas_core.Mapped, ...],
) -> tuple[ir.Value, DTypeLike, tuple[int | pallas_core.Mapped, ...]]:
  src_bitwidth = dtype_bitwidth(ref_dtype)
  dst_bitwidth = dtype_bitwidth(bitcaster.dtype)
  if src_bitwidth != dst_bitwidth:
    if len(ref_block_shape) < 2:
      raise NotImplementedError(
          "Bitcast 1D ref with bitwidth change is not supported."
      )
    if ref_block_shape[-2] is pallas_core.mapped:
      raise NotImplementedError(
          "Bitcast a ref whose 2nd minormost dimension is squeezed when"
          " bitwidth changes."
      )
  new_ref_dtype = bitcaster.dtype
  target_ref_ty = ir.MemRefType.get(
      bitcaster.shape,
      _dtype_to_ir_type(new_ref_dtype),
      memory_space=ref.type.memory_space,
  )
  new_ref_block_shape = list(ref_block_shape)
  if (
      len(new_ref_block_shape) >= 2
      and new_ref_block_shape[-2] is not pallas_core.mapped
  ):
    new_ref_block_shape[-2] = (
        new_ref_block_shape[-2] * src_bitwidth // dst_bitwidth
    )
  return (
      tpu.memref_bitcast(target_ref_ty, ref),
      new_ref_dtype,
      tuple(new_ref_block_shape),
  )


def _reshape_memref(
    ref: ir.Value,
    reshaper: RefReshaper,
    ref_dtype: DTypeLike,
    ref_block_shape: tuple[int | pallas_core.Mapped, ...],
) -> tuple[ir.Value, DTypeLike, tuple[int | pallas_core.Mapped, ...]]:
  if ref_dtype != reshaper.dtype:
    raise ValueError(
        f"Reshape a ref with dtype change: {reshaper.dtype} vs {ref_dtype}"
    )
  if len(ref_block_shape) < 2:
    raise NotImplementedError("Reshape 1D ref is not supported.")
  if (
      ref_block_shape[-2] is pallas_core.mapped
      or ref_block_shape[-1] is pallas_core.mapped
  ):
    raise NotImplementedError(
        "Reshape a ref with squeezed dimension on last two dimensions."
    )
  if np.prod(ref_block_shape) != np.prod(reshaper.shape):
    raise ValueError(
        f"Reshape a ref with different number of elements: {ref_block_shape} "
        f"vs {reshaper.shape}"
    )
  target_ref_ty = ir.MemRefType.get(
      reshaper.shape,
      _dtype_to_ir_type(reshaper.dtype),
      memory_space=ref.type.memory_space,
  )
  return (
      tpu.memref_reshape(target_ref_ty, ref),
      reshaper.shape,
  )


def _transform_ref(ref, ref_dtype, ref_block_shape, transforms):
  for transform in transforms:
    match transform:
      case NDIndexer():
        ref, ref_block_shape = _slice_memref(
            ref, transform, ref_dtype, ref_block_shape
        )
      case RefBitcaster():
        ref, ref_dtype, ref_block_shape = _bitcast_memref(
            ref, transform, ref_dtype, ref_block_shape
        )
      case RefReshaper():
        ref, ref_block_shape = _reshape_memref(
            ref, transform, ref_dtype, ref_block_shape
        )
      case _:
        raise NotImplementedError(f"Unsupported transform: {transform}")
  return ref, ref_block_shape


@dataclasses.dataclass(frozen=True)
class KeyScalarBundle:
  """A container class for PRNG key data.

  We pass around keys as a KeyScalarBundle in the lowering pass rather than
  as a vector, since we want the key data to live in scalar registers rather
  than vector registers. This special dataclass exists so we can return
  multiple scalar values from load_op, because the load_op primitive does
  not allow multiple results.

  Attributes:
    scalars: A list of OpResults representing scalar key data during the
      lowering pass.
  """
  key_shape: tuple[int, ...]
  scalars: list[ir.OpResult]

def _load_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args_flat, args_tree, **_):
  ref, transforms, mask, _ = args_tree.unflatten(args_flat)
  ref_aval, transforms_avals, _, _ = args_tree.unflatten(ctx.avals_in)
  (*prev_transforms, idx) = transforms
  # Select last aval, which is the one that will be used for the load.
  (*_, idx_aval) = transforms_avals

  if mask is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError

  ref_block_shape, *_ = ctx.block_shapes
  ref, ref_block_shape = _transform_ref(
      ref, ref_aval.dtype, ref_block_shape, prev_transforms
  )
  ref_type = ir.MemRefType(ref.type)
  is_smem_load = str(ref_type.memory_space) == "#tpu.memory_space<smem>"
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if isinstance(aval_out.dtype, prng.KeyTy) and pl_random.is_pallas_impl(
      aval_out.dtype._impl
  ):
    if not is_smem_load:
      raise ValueError("PRNG keys must be loaded from SMEM. Did you set "
                       "the memory space to TPUMemorySpace.SMEM in the "
                       "BlockSpec for the PRNG key input?")
    return _prng_key_load_lowering_rule(ctx, *args_flat, args_tree=args_tree)
  if not is_smem_load and not ref_block_shape:
    raise NotImplementedError(
        "Indexing into a ()-shaped Ref not yet supported on TPU.")
  if any(
      (not isinstance(a, primitives.Slice) and a.shape)
      for a in idx_aval.indices
  ):
    raise ValueError("Cannot do int indexing on TPU")
  starts, sizes, strides, _, _ = _indexer_to_start_size_stride(
      idx,
      ref_block_shape,
      cast_to_index=True,
  )
  need_stride = not all((s is None or s == 1) for s in strides)
  if is_smem_load:
    if ctx.avals_out[0].shape:
      raise ValueError("Can only load scalars from SMEM")
    return _maybe_cast_load_to_bool(ctx, aval_out, memref.load(ref, starts))
  elif str(ref_type.memory_space) != "#tpu.memory_space<vmem>":
    extra = ""
    if str(ref_type.memory_space) == "#tpu.memory_space<any>":
      extra = " ANY memory space can only be accessed using async_copy."
    raise ValueError(
        "Loads are only allowed on VMEM and SMEM references." + extra
    )
  load_aval = jax_core.ShapedArray(sizes, dtype=aval_out.dtype)
  if need_stride:
    load_val = tpu.strided_load(
        aval_to_ir_type(
            ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
            load_aval,
            is_kernel_boundary=True,
        ),
        ref,
        starts,
        strides,
    )
  else:
    load_val = vector.load(
        aval_to_ir_type(
            ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
            load_aval,
            is_kernel_boundary=True,
        ),
        ref,
        starts,
    )
  if load_aval != aval_out:
    if aval_out.shape:
      vec_type = ir.VectorType.get(aval_out.shape,
                                  _dtype_to_ir_type(aval_out.dtype,
                                                    is_kernel_boundary=True))
      load_val = vector.shape_cast(vec_type, load_val)
    else:
      load_val = vector.extract(load_val, [], [0] * len(load_aval.shape))
  return _maybe_cast_load_to_bool(ctx, aval_out, load_val)

def _prng_key_load_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args_flat, args_tree) -> KeyScalarBundle:
  """Lowering rule for loading PRNG keys from SMEM.

  PRNG key loads are currently lowered as a list of scalar loads from SMEM,
  rather than a single vector load.
  We store these scalars in a bundle type called KeyScalarBundle, which has
  special case handling for functions that consume the key such as set_seed.
  """
  ref, _, _, _ = args_tree.unflatten(args_flat)
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  assert isinstance(aval_out.dtype, prng.KeyTy)
  ref_block_shape = aval_out.dtype._impl.key_shape

  if len(ref_block_shape) != 2:
    raise NotImplementedError("Seed key_data must be 2D.")
  if tuple(ref_block_shape) != (1, 1):
    raise NotImplementedError(
      f"Seed key_data of shape != (1, 1) not supported. Got: {ref_block_shape}")

  load_ops = []
  for i in range(ref_block_shape[0]):
    idx = NDIndexer(indices=(0, i), shape=ref_block_shape,
                    int_indexer_shape=tuple())
    starts, _, _, _, _ = _indexer_to_start_size_stride(
        idx,
        ref_block_shape,
        cast_to_index=True,
    )
    load_ops.append(memref.load(ref, starts))
  return KeyScalarBundle(scalars=load_ops, key_shape=tuple(ref_block_shape))


lowering_rules[primitives.load_p] = _load_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(primitives.load_p)


def _maybe_cast_load_to_bool(
    ctx, out_aval, val: ir.Value
) -> tuple[ir.Value, jnp.dtype]:
  """Casts a memref load value to bool if the requested value is a bool.

  Mosaic does not support boolean-type memrefs, since booleans
  typically live in mask registers. We instead load booleans as integers from
  memrefs and move them to mask registers on load using this function.

  Args:
    out_aval: The output aval of the load.
    val: The input value.

  Returns:
    The loaded value, and the JAX dtype of the input value.
  """
  if out_aval.dtype != jnp.bool_:
    return val
  load_scalar_type = _dtype_to_ir_type(BOOL_MEMREF_TYPE)
  pred = _cmpsi_lowering_types[lax.ne_p]
  predicate = ir.IntegerAttr.get(ir.IntegerType.get_signless(64), pred)
  const_zero = ir.IntegerAttr.get(load_scalar_type, 0)
  if out_aval.shape:  # Vector case.
    load_vector_type = aval_to_ir_type(
        ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
        out_aval,
        is_kernel_boundary=True,
    )
    vector_zeros = arith.ConstantOp(
        load_vector_type,
        ir.DenseElementsAttr.get_splat(load_vector_type, const_zero)
    )
    return arith.cmpi(predicate, val, vector_zeros)
  else:  # Scalar case.
    const_zero = arith.ConstantOp(load_scalar_type, const_zero)
    return arith.cmpi(predicate, val, const_zero)


def _maybe_cast_store_to_memref_type(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, expected_aval, val: ir.Value
) -> ir.Value:
  """Casts a boolean value back to an integer for storing in a memref."""
  if expected_aval.dtype != jnp.bool_:
    return val
  int_out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
      expected_aval,
      is_kernel_boundary=True,
  )
  return arith.extui(int_out_type, val)


def _masked_swap_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args_flat, args_tree, **_
):
  ref, transforms, val, mask = args_tree.unflatten(args_flat)
  ref_aval, transforms_avals, val_aval, mask_aval = args_tree.unflatten(
      ctx.avals_in
  )
  (*prev_transforms, idx) = transforms
  (*_, idx_aval) = transforms_avals

  if mask is not None:
    if  val_aval.dtype.itemsize != 4:
      raise NotImplementedError("masked swap with non-32-bit data")
    if val_aval.shape != mask_aval.shape:
      raise ValueError(
          "Expected value and mask to have the same shape, but got"
          f" value shape {val_aval.shape} vs. mask shape {mask_aval.shape}."
      )

  ref_block_shape, *_ = ctx.block_shapes
  ref, ref_block_shape = _transform_ref(
      ref, ref_aval.dtype, ref_block_shape, prev_transforms
  )

  ref_type = ir.MemRefType(ref.type)
  memory_space = str(ref_type.memory_space)
  is_smem_store = memory_space == "#tpu.memory_space<smem>"
  is_vmem_store = memory_space == "#tpu.memory_space<vmem>"
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if not isinstance(val, ir.Value):
    val = ir_constant(val, mlir_type=_dtype_to_ir_type(val_aval.dtype))
  if any(
      (not isinstance(a, primitives.Slice) and a.shape)
      for a in idx_aval.indices
  ):
    raise ValueError("Cannot do int indexing on TPU")
  if not is_smem_store and not ref_block_shape:
    raise NotImplementedError(
        "Indexing into a ()-shaped Ref not yet supported on TPU.")

  starts, _, strides, _, _ = _indexer_to_start_size_stride(
      idx,
      ref_block_shape,
      cast_to_index=True,
  )
  need_stride = not all((s is None or s == 1) for s in strides)

  if is_smem_store:
    if mask is not None:
      raise ValueError("SMEM store does not support masks")
    if val_aval.shape:
      raise ValueError("Can only store scalars to SMEM")
    result = memref.load(ref, starts)
    result = _maybe_cast_load_to_bool(ctx, val_aval, result)
    val = _maybe_cast_store_to_memref_type(ctx, val_aval, val)
    memref.StoreOp(val, ref, starts)
    return result

  if not is_vmem_store:
    extra = ""
    if memory_space == "#tpu.memory_space<any>":
      extra = " ANY memory space can only be accessed using async_copy."
    raise ValueError(
        "Loads and stores are only allowed on VMEM and SMEM references." + extra
    )

  # handling VMEM store below
  if not val_aval.shape:
    raise ValueError("Cannot store scalars to VMEM")

  mem_slice_shape = list(aval_out.shape)
  for i, a in enumerate(idx_aval.indices):
    if not isinstance(a, primitives.Slice):
      mem_slice_shape.insert(i, 1)
  mem_slice_shape_iter = iter(mem_slice_shape)
  mem_slice_shape = [
      1 if b is pallas_core.mapped else next(mem_slice_shape_iter)
      for b in ref_block_shape
  ]
  mem_aval = aval_out.update(
      shape=tuple(mem_slice_shape), sharding=jax_core.get_cur_mesh_sharding()
  )
  mem_aval_shape = ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn(
      mem_aval.shape
  )
  mem_aval_vec_type = ir.VectorType.get(
      mem_aval_shape, _dtype_to_ir_type(mem_aval.dtype, is_kernel_boundary=True)
  )
  if need_stride:
    result = tpu.strided_load(mem_aval_vec_type, ref, starts, strides)
  else:
    result = vector.load(mem_aval_vec_type, ref, starts)
  val = _maybe_cast_store_to_memref_type(ctx, val_aval, val)
  if mem_aval != aval_out:
    if not aval_out.shape:
      raise ValueError("Cannot swap scalars to VMEM.")
    # We are slicing a scalar so provided dummy 1 indices
    result_vec_type = ir.VectorType.get(aval_out.shape,
      _dtype_to_ir_type(aval_out.dtype, is_kernel_boundary=True))
    result = vector.shape_cast(result_vec_type, result)
    val_vec_type = ir.VectorType.get(mem_aval.shape,
      _dtype_to_ir_type(mem_aval.dtype, is_kernel_boundary=True))
    val = vector.shape_cast(val_vec_type, val)
  result = _maybe_cast_load_to_bool(ctx, val_aval, result)

  if need_stride:
    if mask is not None:
      raise NotImplementedError("masked swap with strided store")
    tpu.StridedStoreOp(val, ref, starts, strides)
  else:
    tpu.VectorStoreOp(val, ref, starts, [], mask=mask)
  return result


lowering_rules[primitives.swap_p] = _masked_swap_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(primitives.swap_p)


def _multiple_of_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, val, *, values):
  del ctx
  for multiple in values:
    val = tpu.assume_multiple(val, multiple)
  return val


lowering_rules[primitives.multiple_of_p] = _multiple_of_lowering_rule


def reduce_lowering_rule(reduce_fn, type_to_kind, type_to_identity):
  def _lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, axes):
    (x_aval,) = ctx.avals_in
    if not ctx.avals_out[0].shape:
      # If reducing to a scalar, we reduce by adding a leading singleton
      # dimension and reducing over all other dimensions. This avoids
      # the materialization of a scalar tensor by the reduction op which
      # is not supported.
      def _proxy_fun(val, *, axes):
        val = val[jnp.newaxis, ...]
        axes = [axis + 1 for axis in axes]
        val = reduce_fn(val, axis=axes, keepdims=True)
        # Squeeze lowers to vector.ExtractOp which will place the final
        # value in a scalar register.
        return jnp.squeeze(val)
      proxy_lowering = lower_fun(
          _proxy_fun, multiple_results=False)
      return proxy_lowering(ctx, x, axes=axes)

    if jnp.issubdtype(x_aval.dtype, jnp.floating):
      kind = type_to_kind[jnp.floating]
      val = type_to_identity[jnp.floating]
      val = ir.FloatAttr.get(
          aval_to_ir_type(
              ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
              x_aval,
              shape=(),
          ),
          val,
      )
    elif x_aval.dtype == jnp.int32:
      kind = type_to_kind[jnp.signedinteger]
      val = type_to_identity[jnp.signedinteger]
      val = ir.IntegerAttr.get(ir.IntegerType.get_signless(32), val)
    elif jnp.issubdtype(x_aval.dtype, jnp.unsignedinteger):
      raise NotImplementedError(
          "Reductions over unsigned integers not implemented."
      )
    else:
      raise NotImplementedError(
          f"Reductions over {x_aval.dtype} not implemented.")
    out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
        ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, ctx.avals_out[0]
    )
    identity = ir.DenseElementsAttr.get_splat(out_type, val)
    acc = arith.ConstantOp(out_type, identity)
    return vector.multi_reduction(kind, x, acc, axes)
  return _lowering_rule


REDUCE_MAX_KINDS = {
    jnp.floating: vector.CombiningKind.MAXIMUMF,
    jnp.signedinteger: vector.CombiningKind.MAXSI,
    jnp.unsignedinteger: vector.CombiningKind.MAXUI,
}
REDUCE_MAX_IDENTITY = {
    jnp.floating: float("-inf"),
    jnp.signedinteger: np.iinfo(np.int32).min,
}
_reduce_max_lowering_rule = reduce_lowering_rule(
    jnp.max, REDUCE_MAX_KINDS, REDUCE_MAX_IDENTITY)
lowering_rules[lax.reduce_max_p] = _reduce_max_lowering_rule


REDUCE_MIN_KINDS = {
    jnp.floating: vector.CombiningKind.MINIMUMF,
    jnp.signedinteger: vector.CombiningKind.MINSI,
    jnp.unsignedinteger: vector.CombiningKind.MINUI,
}
REDUCE_MIN_IDENTITY = {
    jnp.floating: float("inf"),
    jnp.signedinteger: np.iinfo(np.int32).max,
}
_reduce_min_lowering_rule = reduce_lowering_rule(
    jnp.min, REDUCE_MIN_KINDS, REDUCE_MIN_IDENTITY)
lowering_rules[lax.reduce_min_p] = _reduce_min_lowering_rule


REDUCE_SUM_KINDS = {
    jnp.floating: vector.CombiningKind.ADD,
    jnp.signedinteger: vector.CombiningKind.ADD,
    jnp.unsignedinteger: vector.CombiningKind.ADD,
}
REDUCE_SUM_IDENTITY = {
    jnp.floating: 0.0,
    jnp.signedinteger: 0,
}
_reduce_sum_lowering_rule = reduce_lowering_rule(
    jnp.sum, REDUCE_SUM_KINDS, REDUCE_SUM_IDENTITY)
lowering_rules[lax.reduce_sum_p] = _reduce_sum_lowering_rule


def _reduce_and_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, axes):
  def _proxy_reduce(arg, *, axes):
    # Mosaic currently only supports float reductions, so we cast the boolean
    # arg to a float and use reduce_min to implement reduce_and.
    # TODO(b/351017807): Implement this logic in Mosaic MultiDimReductionOp
    # instead.
    float_arg = jnp.where(arg, 1.0, 0.0)
    return jnp.min(float_arg, axis=axes) > 0.0
  proxy_lowering = lower_fun(
      _proxy_reduce, multiple_results=False)
  return proxy_lowering(ctx, x, axes=axes)

lowering_rules[lax.reduce_and_p] = _reduce_and_lowering_rule


def _reduce_or_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, axes):
  def _proxy_reduce(arg, *, axes):
    # Mosaic currently only supports float reductions, so we cast the boolean
    # arg to a float and use reduce_max to implement reduce_or.
    # TODO(b/351017807): Implement this logic in Mosaic MultiDimReductionOp
    # instead.
    float_arg = jnp.where(arg, 1.0, 0.0)
    return jnp.max(float_arg, axis=axes) > 0.0
  proxy_lowering = lower_fun(
      _proxy_reduce, multiple_results=False)
  return proxy_lowering(ctx, x, axes=axes)

lowering_rules[lax.reduce_or_p] = _reduce_or_lowering_rule


def _broadcast_to_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, shape: Sequence[int]
):
  raise RuntimeError(
      "`broadcast_to` is a Triton-specific primitive. Please consider using"
      " `jnp.broadcast_to` instead."
  )


lowering_rules[state_primitives.broadcast_to_p] = _broadcast_to_lowering_rule


def _broadcast_in_dim_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, val, *, shape, broadcast_dimensions, sharding
):
  del sharding
  (aval_in,) = ctx.avals_in
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out

  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_in.dtype, jnp.bool_):
    # Direct broadcasts for bools are not supported in Mosaic due to booleans
    # living in mask registers and broadcast operating on vregs. Broadcast as an
    # integer instead and cast back to a bool.
    # TODO(b/351019164): Implement this logic in Mosaic BroadcastOp instead.
    def _proxy_fun(val, *, shape, broadcast_dimensions):
      int_val = jnp.where(val, 1, 0)
      bcast_val = jax.lax.broadcast_in_dim(int_val, shape, broadcast_dimensions)
      return bcast_val == 1
    proxy_lowering = lower_fun(
        _proxy_fun, multiple_results=False)
    return proxy_lowering(
        ctx, val, shape=shape, broadcast_dimensions=broadcast_dimensions)

  if broadcast_dimensions:
    out_shape_list = [1] * len(shape)
    for i, s in zip(broadcast_dimensions, aval_in.shape):
      out_shape_list[i] = s
    out_shape = tuple(out_shape_list)
    out_type = ir.VectorType.get(
        out_shape, _dtype_to_ir_type(aval_out.dtype)
    )
    val = vector.shape_cast(out_type, val)
    if out_shape == aval_out.shape:
      return val
  out_type = ir.VectorType.get(
      aval_out.shape, _dtype_to_ir_type(aval_out.dtype)
  )
  return vector.broadcast(out_type, val)


lowering_rules[lax.broadcast_in_dim_p] = _broadcast_in_dim_lowering_rule


def jax_dot_dims_to_tpu_dot_dot_dims(dimension_numbers, lhs_shape, rhs_shape):
  """Converts a jax dot dimension numbers to a tpu dot dimension numbers.

  Jax dot dimension numbers are given as a tuple of tuples of sequences of ints
  of the form ((lhs_contracting_dims, rhs_contracting_dims), (lhs_batch_dims,
  rhs_batch_dims)).

  TPU dot dimension numbers are given as an MLIR definition of the form
  #tpu.dot_dimension_numbers - which can be found in the tpu dilect definition
  # file, tpu.td .
  """
  (contracting_dims, batch_dims) = dimension_numbers
  lhs_contracting_dims, rhs_contracting_dims = contracting_dims
  lhs_batch_dims, rhs_batch_dims = batch_dims

  lhs_total_dims = set(range(len(lhs_shape)))
  rhs_total_dims = set(range(len(rhs_shape)))

  lhs_non_contracting_dims = sorted(
      lhs_total_dims - set(lhs_contracting_dims) - set(lhs_batch_dims)
  )
  rhs_non_contracting_dims = sorted(
      rhs_total_dims - set(rhs_contracting_dims) - set(rhs_batch_dims)
  )

  # Create output_dim_order
  # Note: we assume that the output dimensions are ordered as batch dims, lhs_non_contracting_dims,
  # rhs_non_contracting_dims - this assumption is safe to make, as it is
  # the same one made in jax's dot_general.
  output_dim_order = []

  lhs_dim_map = {dim: idx for idx, dim in enumerate(range(len(lhs_shape)))}
  rhs_dim_map = {dim: idx for idx, dim in enumerate(range(len(rhs_shape)))}

  for dim in lhs_batch_dims:
    output_dim_order.append(0)
    output_dim_order.append(lhs_dim_map[dim])

  for dim in lhs_non_contracting_dims:
    output_dim_order.append(0)
    output_dim_order.append(lhs_dim_map[dim])

  for dim in rhs_non_contracting_dims:
    output_dim_order.append(1)
    output_dim_order.append(rhs_dim_map[dim])

  def format_dims(dims):
    return "[" + ", ".join(str(d) for d in dims) + "]"

  all_dims = (
      lhs_contracting_dims,
      rhs_contracting_dims,
      lhs_non_contracting_dims,
      rhs_non_contracting_dims,
      output_dim_order,
      lhs_batch_dims,
      rhs_batch_dims,
  )
  tpu_dim_numbers_str = (
      f"#tpu.dot_dimension_numbers<{','.join(map(format_dims, all_dims))}>"
  )

  return ir.Attribute.parse(tpu_dim_numbers_str)


def _dot_general_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    x,
    y,
    dimension_numbers,
    precision,
    preferred_element_type,
    **_,
):
  (lhs_dims, rhs_dims), _ = dimension_numbers
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, aval_out
  )
  val_type = out_type.element_type
  if any(
      cls.isinstance(val_type)
      for cls in [
          ir.BF16Type,
          ir.F32Type,
          ir.Float8E5M2Type,
          ir.Float8E4M3FNType,
          ir.Float8E4M3B11FNUZType,
      ]
  ):
    val = ir.FloatAttr.get(val_type, 0.0)
  elif ir.IntegerType.isinstance(val_type):
    val = ir.IntegerAttr.get(val_type, 0)
  else:
    raise NotImplementedError(ctx.avals_out[0].dtype)
  lhs_aval, rhs_aval = ctx.avals_in
  # This is really a matrix-vector product. It only looks like matrix-matrix.
  if lhs_dims == (1,) and rhs_dims == (1,) and ctx.avals_in[1].shape[0] == 1:
    if ctx.avals_in[0].shape != ctx.avals_in[1].shape:
      bcast_shape = jnp.broadcast_shapes(
          ctx.avals_in[0].shape, ctx.avals_out[0].shape
      )
      bcast_shape = ir.VectorType.get(
          list(bcast_shape), _dtype_to_ir_type(ctx.avals_out[0].dtype)
      )
      if ctx.avals_in[0].shape != bcast_shape:
        x = vector.broadcast(bcast_shape, x)
      if ctx.avals_in[1].shape != bcast_shape:
        y = vector.broadcast(bcast_shape, y)
    red_dtype = (
        preferred_element_type if preferred_element_type else lhs_aval.dtype
    )
    red_type = aval_to_ir_type(
        ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
        lhs_aval.update(shape=(lhs_aval.shape[0],), dtype=red_dtype),
    )

    if lhs_aval.dtype != red_dtype:
      lhs_type = aval_to_ir_type(
          ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
          lhs_aval.update(shape=lhs_aval.shape, dtype=red_dtype),
      )
      if red_dtype == jnp.float32:
        x = arith.extf(lhs_type, x)
      else:
        raise NotImplementedError(f"Unsupported {preferred_element_type=}")

    if rhs_aval.dtype != red_dtype:
      rhs_type = aval_to_ir_type(
          ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
          rhs_aval.update(shape=rhs_aval.shape, dtype=red_dtype),
      )
      if red_dtype == jnp.float32:
        y = arith.extf(rhs_type, y)
      else:
        raise NotImplementedError(f"Unsupported {preferred_element_type=}")

    acc = arith.ConstantOp(
        red_type, ir.DenseElementsAttr.get_splat(red_type, val)
    )
    red = vector.MultiDimReductionOp(
        ir.Attribute.parse("#vector.kind<add>"),
        arith.MulFOp(x, y),
        acc,
        [1]
    )
    return vector.shape_cast(out_type, red)

  tpu_dot_dims = jax_dot_dims_to_tpu_dot_dot_dims(
      dimension_numbers, lhs_aval.shape, rhs_aval.shape
  )

  if precision is not None:
    if precision[0] != precision[1]:
      raise NotImplementedError("Per-operand dot precision unsupported")
    precision = precision[0]
  if precision is None or precision == lax.Precision.DEFAULT:
    precision_attr = None  # That's the default in Mosaic.
  elif precision == lax.Precision.HIGHEST:
    precision_attr = ir.Attribute.parse(
        "#tpu.contract_precision<fp32>"
    )
  else:
    raise NotImplementedError(f"Unsupported dot precision: {precision}")
  out_tile = arith.ConstantOp(
      out_type, ir.DenseElementsAttr.get_splat(out_type, val)
  )
  return tpu.matmul(
      out_type,
      x,
      y,
      out_tile,
      dimension_numbers=tpu_dot_dims,
      precision=precision_attr,
  )


lowering_rules[lax.dot_general_p] = _dot_general_lowering_rule

def _convert_helper(x, *, to_dtype):
  # Helper function for dtype conversion
  from_dtype = x.dtype
  if from_dtype == jnp.bool_:
    x = x.astype(jnp.int32)
    return _convert_helper(x, to_dtype=to_dtype)
  if to_dtype == jnp.bool_:
    # Lower float32 or (u)int32 -> bool to cmp neq %in, 0
    # TODO(apaszke,mvoz): Move the upcasts for cmpi to the Mosaic canonicalizer.
    if jnp.issubdtype(from_dtype, jnp.floating):
      if from_dtype.itemsize < 4:
        x = x.astype(jnp.float32)
    elif jnp.issubdtype(from_dtype, jnp.integer):
      if from_dtype.itemsize < 4:
        x = x.astype(jnp.int32)
    return x != jnp.asarray(0, dtype=x.dtype)
  if jnp.issubdtype(from_dtype, jnp.signedinteger):
    if from_dtype.itemsize < 4:
      x = x.astype(jnp.int32)
    if jnp.issubdtype(to_dtype, jnp.floating) and to_dtype.itemsize < 4:
      x = x.astype(jnp.float32)
    return x.astype(to_dtype)
  if jnp.issubdtype(from_dtype, jnp.unsignedinteger):
    if from_dtype.itemsize < 4:
      x = x.astype(jnp.uint32)
    # unsigned -> float is unsupported. We fall through and raise at the bottom.
    if not jnp.issubdtype(to_dtype, jnp.floating):
      return x.astype(to_dtype)
  raise NotImplementedError(f"Unsupported cast: {from_dtype} -> {to_dtype}")

def _convert_element_type_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, new_dtype, weak_type, sharding
):
  del weak_type
  del sharding
  out_aval = ctx.avals_out[0]
  in_aval = ctx.avals_in[0]
  old_dtype = in_aval.dtype
  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, out_aval
  )

  if old_dtype == new_dtype:
    return x

  if new_dtype.itemsize == 8:
    raise NotImplementedError("64-bit types are not supported")

  _from = lambda dtype: jnp.issubdtype(old_dtype, dtype)
  _to = lambda dtype: jnp.issubdtype(new_dtype, dtype)
  floating = jnp.floating
  integer = jnp.integer
  signed = jnp.signedinteger
  both_32bit = old_dtype.itemsize == 4 and new_dtype.itemsize == 4
  if _from(floating) and _to(floating):
    if old_dtype.itemsize < new_dtype.itemsize and new_dtype.itemsize == 4:
      return arith.extf(out_type, x)
    elif old_dtype.itemsize > new_dtype.itemsize and old_dtype.itemsize == 4:
      return arith.truncf(out_type, x)
  elif _from(integer) and _to(integer):
    if old_dtype.itemsize < new_dtype.itemsize and new_dtype.itemsize == 4:
      if not (_from(signed) and _to(signed)):
        raise NotImplementedError(f"Unsupported cast: {old_dtype} -> {new_dtype}")
      return arith.extsi(out_type, x)
    elif old_dtype.itemsize > new_dtype.itemsize and old_dtype.itemsize == 4:
      return arith.trunci(out_type, x)
    elif jnp.iinfo(old_dtype).bits == jnp.iinfo(new_dtype).bits:
      # This case triggers when casting signed to unsigned or vice versa.
      return x
  # TODO(apaszke): Remove both_32bit constraints using the Mosaic canonicalizer.
  elif _from(floating) and _to(signed):
    return arith.fptosi(out_type, x)
  elif _from(signed) and _to(floating) and both_32bit:
    return arith.sitofp(out_type, x)
  elif old_dtype == jnp.bool_ and _to(integer) and new_dtype.itemsize == 4:
    return arith.extui(out_type, x)
  return lower_fun(functools.partial(_convert_helper, to_dtype=new_dtype),
                   multiple_results=False)(ctx, x)


lowering_rules[lax.convert_element_type_p] = _convert_element_type_lowering_rule


def _reshape_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, new_sizes, dimensions,
                           sharding):
  if dimensions is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError
  if any(d is None for d in new_sizes):
    raise NotImplementedError
  if not ctx.avals_in[0].shape:
    return vector.broadcast(
        aval_to_ir_type(
            ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, ctx.avals_out[0]
        ),
        x,
    )
  if not ctx.avals_out[0].shape:
    return vector.extract(x, [], [0] * len(ctx.avals_in[0].shape))
  return vector.shape_cast(
      aval_to_ir_type(
          ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, ctx.avals_out[0]
      ),
      x,
  )


lowering_rules[lax.reshape_p] = _reshape_lowering_rule


def _squeeze_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, dimensions):
  del dimensions  # Unused.
  (aval_in,) = ctx.avals_in
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if not aval_out.shape:
    if aval_out.dtype.itemsize != 4:
      raise ValueError(
          "Only arrays with 32-bit element types can be converted to scalars,"
          f" but got: {aval_out.dtype}. Try casting the input before squeezing"
          " the scalar."
      )
    return vector.extract(x, [], [0] * len(aval_in.shape))
  return vector.shape_cast(
      aval_to_ir_type(
          ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, ctx.avals_out[0]
      ),
      x,
  )


lowering_rules[lax.squeeze_p] = _squeeze_lowering_rule


def _concatenate_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *xs, dimension):
  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, ctx.avals_out[0]
  )
  return tpu.concatenate(out_type, xs, dimension=dimension)


lowering_rules[lax.concatenate_p] = _concatenate_lowering_rule


def _split_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, sizes, axis
):
  (x_aval,) = ctx.avals_in
  slice_size = np.array(x_aval.shape, dtype=np.int64)
  starts = np.zeros_like(slice_size)
  strides = np.ones_like(slice_size)
  outs = []
  for size, aval_out in zip(sizes, ctx.avals_out):
    slice_size[axis] = size
    outs.append(
        vector.extract_strided_slice(
            aval_to_ir_type(
                ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, aval_out
            ),
            x,
            starts,
            slice_size,
            strides,
        )
    )
    starts[axis] += size
  return outs

lowering_rules[lax.split_p] = _split_lowering_rule


def _iota_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, dtype, shape, dimension,
                        sharding):
  if len(shape) == 1:
    if dimension != 0:
      raise ValueError("Dimension must be 0 for 1D iota.")
    def _1d_iota_helper(dtype, shape, dimension, sharding):
      iota_2d = lax.iota_p.bind(dtype, (1,) + shape, dimension, sharding)
      return iota_2d[0]
    return lower_fun(_1d_iota_helper, multiple_results=False)(
        ctx, dtype, shape, dimension, sharding)
  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, ctx.avals_out[0]
  )
  return tpu.iota(out_type, dimension=dimension)


lowering_rules[lax.iota_p] = _iota_lowering_rule


def _gather_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    x,
    indices,
    *,
    dimension_numbers,
    slice_sizes,
    unique_indices,
    indices_are_sorted,
    mode,
    fill_value,
):
  in_aval = ctx.avals_in[0]
  indices_aval = ctx.avals_in[1]
  out_aval = ctx.avals_out[0]

  if len(in_aval.shape) != 2:
    raise NotImplementedError("Only 2D gather is supported")
  if pallas_utils.dtype_bitwidth(in_aval.dtype) != 32:
    raise NotImplementedError("Only 32-bit gather is supported")
  if in_aval.shape != indices_aval.shape[:-1] != out_aval.shape:
    raise ValueError("Shape mismatch in input, indices and output")

  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, out_aval
  )
  # During lowering jnp.take_along_axis to lax.gather, we append extra dimension
  # to the end of the indices array. We should reshape it back to the original
  # shape before lowering to Mosaic and rely on MLIR CSE to remove the reshapes.
  assert indices_aval.shape == in_aval.shape + (1,)
  recovered_indices = vector.shape_cast(
      ir.VectorType.get(in_aval.shape, ir.IntegerType.get_signless(32)),
      indices,
  )
  # Note: current support for lax.gather is still very limited.
  del fill_value
  if (
      slice_sizes == (1, 1)
      and not unique_indices
      and not indices_are_sorted
      and mode
      in (
          lax.GatherScatterMode.FILL_OR_DROP,
          lax.GatherScatterMode.PROMISE_IN_BOUNDS,
      )
  ):
    if dimension_numbers == lax.GatherDimensionNumbers(
        offset_dims=(),
        collapsed_slice_dims=(0,),
        start_index_map=(0,),
        operand_batching_dims=(1,),
        start_indices_batching_dims=(1,),
    ):
      return tpu.dynamic_gather(out_type, x, recovered_indices, 0)
    if dimension_numbers == lax.GatherDimensionNumbers(
        offset_dims=(),
        collapsed_slice_dims=(1,),
        start_index_map=(1,),
        operand_batching_dims=(0,),
        start_indices_batching_dims=(0,),
    ):
      return tpu.dynamic_gather(out_type, x, recovered_indices, 1)
  raise NotImplementedError("Unsupported gather")


lowering_rules[lax.gather_p] = _gather_lowering_rule


def _transpose_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, permutation):
  if permutation != (1, 0):
    raise NotImplementedError
  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, ctx.avals_out[0]
  )
  return vector.transpose(out_type, x, permutation)


lowering_rules[lax.transpose_p] = _transpose_lowering_rule


def _bcast(x, y, x_aval, y_aval, out_aval):
  x_dtype = x_aval.dtype
  y_dtype = y_aval.dtype
  if y_aval.weak_type:
    y_dtype = x_aval.dtype
  elif x_aval.weak_type:
    x_dtype = y_aval.dtype
  if not isinstance(x, ir.Value):
    if getattr(y, "type", None) == ir.IndexType.get():
      mlir_type = y.type
    else:
      mlir_type = _dtype_to_ir_type(x_dtype)
    x = ir_constant(x, mlir_type)
  if not isinstance(y, ir.Value):
    if getattr(x, "type", None) == ir.IndexType.get():
      mlir_type = x.type
    else:
      mlir_type = _dtype_to_ir_type(y_dtype)
    y = ir_constant(y, mlir_type)
  out_shape = list(out_aval.shape)
  if x_aval.shape != out_aval.shape:
    x_ty = ir.VectorType.get(out_shape, _dtype_to_ir_type(x_dtype))
    x = vector.broadcast(x_ty, x)
  if y_aval.shape != out_aval.shape:
    y_ty = ir.VectorType.get(out_shape, _dtype_to_ir_type(y_dtype))
    y = vector.broadcast(y_ty, y)
  return x, y


def _add_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, ctx.avals_in[0], ctx.avals_in[1], ctx.avals_out[0])
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.integer):
    return arith.addi(x, y)
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.floating):
    return arith.addf(x, y)
  raise NotImplementedError(aval_out.dtype)


lowering_rules[lax.add_p] = _add_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.add_p)
lowering_rules[ad_util.add_any_p] = _add_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(ad_util.add_any_p)


class FoldingError(Exception):
  pass


def _fold_and_get_constant_value(x):
  def _fold(x, fuel):
    if fuel <= 0:
      raise FoldingError("Folding depth exceeded")
    op_name = getattr(x.owner, "name", None)
    binop_folds = {
        "arith.maxsi": max,
        "arith.minsi": min,
    }
    if op_name == "arith.constant":
      if ir.IntegerType.isinstance(x.type):
        return ir.IntegerAttr(x.owner.attributes["value"]).value
      elif ir.FloatType.isinstance(x.type):
        return ir.FloatAttr(x.owner.attributes["value"]).value
      else:
        raise ValueError(f"Unsupported constant type: {x.type}")
    if op_name in binop_folds:
      return binop_folds[op_name](_fold(v, fuel - 1) for v in x.owner.operands)
    raise FoldingError(f"Folding not supported for {x.owner}")

  try:
    return _fold(x, 10)
  except FoldingError:
    return None


def _max_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, ctx.avals_in[0], ctx.avals_in[1], ctx.avals_out[0])
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.signedinteger):
    return arith.maxsi(x, y)
  elif jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.unsignedinteger):
    return arith.maxui(x, y)
  elif jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.floating):
    return arith.maximumf(x, y)
  raise NotImplementedError(aval_out.dtype)


lowering_rules[lax.max_p] = _max_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.max_p)


def _min_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, ctx.avals_in[0], ctx.avals_in[1], ctx.avals_out[0])
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.signedinteger):
    return arith.minsi(x, y)
  elif jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.unsignedinteger):
    return arith.minui(x, y)
  elif jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.floating):
    return arith.minimumf(x, y)
  raise NotImplementedError(aval_out.dtype)


lowering_rules[lax.min_p] = _min_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.min_p)


def _sub_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, ctx.avals_in[0], ctx.avals_in[1], ctx.avals_out[0])
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.integer):
    return arith.subi(x, y)
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.floating):
    return arith.subf(x, y)
  raise NotImplementedError(aval_out.dtype)


lowering_rules[lax.sub_p] = _sub_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.sub_p)


def _mul_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, ctx.avals_in[0], ctx.avals_in[1], ctx.avals_out[0])
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.integer):
    return arith.muli(x, y)
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.floating):
    return arith.mulf(x, y)
  raise NotImplementedError(aval_out.dtype)


lowering_rules[lax.mul_p] = _mul_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.mul_p)


def _div_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, ctx.avals_in[0], ctx.avals_in[1], ctx.avals_out[0])
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.signedinteger):
    return arith.divsi(x, y)
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.unsignedinteger):
    return arith.divui(x, y)
  elif jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.floating):
    return arith.divf(x, y)
  raise NotImplementedError(aval_out.dtype)


lowering_rules[lax.div_p] = _div_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.div_p)


def _rem_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, ctx.avals_in[0], ctx.avals_in[1], ctx.avals_out[0])
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.signedinteger):
    return arith.remsi(x, y)
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.unsignedinteger):
    return arith.remui(x, y)
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.floating):
    return arith.remf(x, y)
  raise NotImplementedError(aval_out.dtype)


lowering_rules[lax.rem_p] = _rem_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.rem_p)


def _abs_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.integer):
    return math.absi(x)
  if jnp.issubdtype(aval_out.dtype, jnp.floating):
    return math.absf(x)
  raise NotImplementedError(aval_out.dtype)


lowering_rules[lax.abs_p] = _abs_lowering_rule


def _neg_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  (x_aval,) = ctx.avals_in
  new_ctx = ctx.replace(
      avals_in=(jax_core.ShapedArray((), x_aval.dtype), x_aval),
      block_shapes=((), *ctx.block_shapes)
  )
  return _sub_lowering_rule(new_ctx, np.array(0, dtype=x_aval.dtype), x)


lowering_rules[lax.neg_p] = _neg_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.neg_p)


def _sign_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  return lower_fun(
      pallas_utils.sign_lowering_helper, multiple_results=False,
  )(ctx, x)


lowering_rules[lax.sign_p] = _sign_lowering_rule


def _nextafter_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  return lower_fun(
      pallas_utils.nextafter_lowering_helper, multiple_results=False,
  )(ctx, x, y)


lowering_rules[lax.nextafter_p] = _nextafter_lowering_rule


def _rsqrt_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  return math.rsqrt(x)


lowering_rules[lax.rsqrt_p] = _rsqrt_lowering_rule


def _sqrt_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  return math.sqrt(x)


lowering_rules[lax.sqrt_p] = _sqrt_lowering_rule


def _square_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  if jnp.issubdtype(ctx.avals_in[0].dtype, jnp.integer):
    return arith.muli(x, x)
  return arith.mulf(x, x)


lowering_rules[lax.square_p] = _square_lowering_rule


def _exp_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  return math.exp(x)


lowering_rules[lax.exp_p] = _exp_lowering_rule


def _pow_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  # jax accepts float base (x) and integer/float exponent (y), and integer
  # exponent is casted to float.
  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, ctx.avals_out[0]
  )
  if jnp.issubdtype(ctx.avals_in[1].dtype, jnp.integer):
    y = arith.sitofp(out_type, y)
  if not isinstance(x, ir.Value) and x == 2.:
    return math.exp2(y)
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, ctx.avals_in[0], ctx.avals_in[1], ctx.avals_out[0])
  return math.powf(x, y)


lowering_rules[lax.pow_p] = _pow_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.pow_p)


def _integer_pow_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, y):
  return lower_fun(lax_internal._integer_pow, multiple_results=False)(
      ctx, x, y=y)


lowering_rules[lax.integer_pow_p] = _integer_pow_lowering_rule


def _exp2_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  # exp2 in JAX lowers to exp(ln2 * x), not to pow2. We match that behavior
  # here.
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  return lower_fun(
      lambda x: jnp.exp(jnp.astype(np.log(2), x.dtype) * x),
      multiple_results=False,
  )(ctx, x)


lowering_rules[lax.exp2_p] = _exp2_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.exp2_p)


def _logistic_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  neg_x = arith.negf(x)
  exp_neg_x = math.exp(neg_x)
  aval_out = ctx.avals_out[0]
  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, aval_out
  )
  if aval_out.shape == ():
    one = ir_constant(1.0, mlir_type=out_type)
  else:
    one = vector.broadcast(out_type, ir_constant(1.0))
  denom = arith.addf(one, exp_neg_x)
  return arith.divf(one, denom)


lowering_rules[lax.logistic_p] = _logistic_lowering_rule


def _sin_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  return math.sin(x)


lowering_rules[lax.sin_p] = _sin_lowering_rule


def _cos_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  return math.cos(x)


lowering_rules[lax.cos_p] = _cos_lowering_rule


def _tan_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  return math.tan(x)


lowering_rules[lax.tan_p] = _tan_lowering_rule


def _tanh_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  return math.tanh(x)


lowering_rules[lax.tanh_p] = _tanh_lowering_rule


def _log_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  return math.log(x)


lowering_rules[lax.log_p] = _log_lowering_rule


def _log1p_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, accuracy):
  if accuracy is not None:
    raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: accuracy")
  return math.log1p(x)


lowering_rules[lax.log1p_p] = _log1p_lowering_rule


def _round_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, rounding_method):
  if rounding_method == 0:
    return math.round(x)
  elif rounding_method == 1:
    return math.roundeven(x)
  else:
    raise NotImplementedError(f"Unsupported rounding method: {rounding_method}")


lowering_rules[lax.round_p] = _round_lowering_rule


def _ceil_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  return math.ceil(x)


lowering_rules[lax.ceil_p] = _ceil_lowering_rule


def _floor_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  return math.floor(x)


lowering_rules[lax.floor_p] = _floor_lowering_rule


def _clz_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  return math.ctlz(x)

lowering_rules[lax.clz_p] = _clz_lowering_rule


def _population_count_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  aval_out = ctx.avals_out[0]
  if aval_out.shape == ():
    raise ValueError("Population count is not supported on scalars")
  return math.ctpop(x)

lowering_rules[lax.population_count_p] = _population_count_lowering_rule


# Mapping for signed integer comparisons.
_cmpsi_lowering_types = {
    lax.eq_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.eq,
    lax.ne_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.ne,
    lax.lt_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.slt,
    lax.le_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.sle,
    lax.gt_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.sgt,
    lax.ge_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.sge,
}

# Mapping for unsigned integer comparisons.
_cmpui_lowering_types = {
    lax.eq_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.eq,
    lax.ne_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.ne,
    lax.lt_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.ult,
    lax.le_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.ule,
    lax.gt_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.ugt,
    lax.ge_p: arith.CmpIPredicate.uge,
}

# Mapping for floating point comparisons.
_cmpf_lowering_types = {
    lax.eq_p: arith.CmpFPredicate.OEQ,
    lax.ne_p: arith.CmpFPredicate.ONE,
    lax.lt_p: arith.CmpFPredicate.OLT,
    lax.le_p: arith.CmpFPredicate.OLE,
    lax.gt_p: arith.CmpFPredicate.OGT,
    lax.ge_p: arith.CmpFPredicate.OGE,
}


# The relationship between comparison operations on booleans and boolean
# algebra is as follows:
# eq(x, y) = !(x ^ y)
# ne(x, y) = x ^ y
# lt(x, y) = !x && y
# le(x, y) = !x || y
# gt(x, y) = x && !y
# ge(x, y) = x || !y
def _cmp_boolean_lowering_helper(primitive, x: Array, y: Array):
  """A helper function for lowering comparison operations for boolean inputs.

  Args:
    primitive: A JAX primitive representing a comparison operation, which is
      one of the following: `lax.eq_p` (equals), `lax.ne_p` (not equals),
      `lax.lt_p` (less than), `lax.le_p` (less than or equal to),
      `lax.gt_p` (greater than), or `lax.ge_p` (greater than or equal to).
    x: A boolean array representing the first operand in the comparison.
    y: A boolean array representing the second operand in the comparison.

  Returns:
    A boolean array that is the result of applying the comparison operation
    between `x` and `y` based on the given primitive.

  Raises:
    ValueError: If an unsupported comparison primitive is provided.
  """
  if primitive == lax.eq_p:
    return jnp.logical_not(jnp.logical_xor(x, y))
  elif primitive == lax.ne_p:
    return jnp.logical_xor(x, y)
  elif primitive == lax.lt_p:
    return jnp.logical_and(jnp.logical_not(x), y)
  elif primitive == lax.le_p:
    return jnp.logical_or(jnp.logical_not(x), y)
  elif primitive == lax.gt_p:
    return jnp.logical_and(x, jnp.logical_not(y))
  elif primitive == lax.ge_p:
    return jnp.logical_or(x, jnp.logical_not(y))
  else:
    raise ValueError(f"Unsupported comparison primitive: {primitive}")


def _cmp_lowering_rule(primitive, ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, ctx.avals_in[0], ctx.avals_in[1], ctx.avals_out[0])
  x_aval, y_aval = ctx.avals_in
  if x_aval.dtype != y_aval.dtype:
    raise ValueError(
        f"Mixed dtype operands in cmp: {x_aval.dtype}, {y_aval.dtype}"
    )
  dtype = x_aval.dtype

  if jnp.issubdtype(dtype, jnp.bool_):
    return lower_fun(
        functools.partial(_cmp_boolean_lowering_helper, primitive),
        multiple_results=False,
    )(ctx, x, y)

  if jnp.issubdtype(dtype, jnp.integer):
    is_uint = jnp.issubdtype(dtype, jnp.unsignedinteger)
    pred = (
        _cmpui_lowering_types if is_uint else _cmpsi_lowering_types
    )[primitive]
    predicate = ir.IntegerAttr.get(ir.IntegerType.get_signless(64), pred)
    return arith.cmpi(predicate, x, y)

  if jnp.issubdtype(dtype, jnp.floating):
    pred = _cmpf_lowering_types[primitive]
    predicate = ir.IntegerAttr.get(ir.IntegerType.get_signless(64), pred)
    return arith.cmpf(predicate, x, y)

  raise NotImplementedError(f"Unsupported dtype in cmp: {dtype}")


lowering_rules[lax.eq_p] = functools.partial(_cmp_lowering_rule, lax.eq_p)
lowering_rules[lax.ne_p] = functools.partial(_cmp_lowering_rule, lax.ne_p)
lowering_rules[lax.lt_p] = functools.partial(_cmp_lowering_rule, lax.lt_p)
lowering_rules[lax.le_p] = functools.partial(_cmp_lowering_rule, lax.le_p)
lowering_rules[lax.gt_p] = functools.partial(_cmp_lowering_rule, lax.gt_p)
lowering_rules[lax.ge_p] = functools.partial(_cmp_lowering_rule, lax.ge_p)


def _and_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, *ctx.avals_in, *ctx.avals_out)
  return arith.andi(x, y)


lowering_rules[lax.and_p] = _and_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.and_p)


def _is_finite_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  out_aval, = ctx.avals_out
  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, out_aval
  )
  return _not_lowering_rule(ctx, tpu.weird(out_type, x))


lowering_rules[lax.is_finite_p] = _is_finite_lowering_rule


def _or_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, *ctx.avals_in, *ctx.avals_out)
  return arith.ori(x, y)


lowering_rules[lax.or_p] = _or_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.or_p)


def _not_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  # The primitive not_p is lowered to
  # https://github.com/openxla/stablehlo/blob/main/docs/spec.md#not
  # which is arithmetic for integers and logical for booleans.
  # Lowering to:
  # xor x, -1
  # covers both cases.
  out_aval = ctx.avals_out[0]
  out_scalar_type = _dtype_to_ir_type(out_aval.dtype)
  if not out_aval.shape:
    # Create a scalar constant.
    minus_one = ir_constant(-1, out_scalar_type)
  else:
    # Create a vector constant.
    out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
        ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, out_aval
    )
    scalar_minus_one = ir.IntegerAttr.get(out_scalar_type, -1)
    minus_one = arith.ConstantOp(
        out_type, ir.DenseElementsAttr.get_splat(out_type, scalar_minus_one)
    )
  return arith.xori(x, minus_one)


lowering_rules[lax.not_p] = _not_lowering_rule

def _select_n_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, pred, x, *args):
  if len(args) > 1:
    raise NotImplementedError("select_n only supported with <= 2 arguments")
  pred_aval, x_aval = ctx.avals_in[:2]
  if pred_aval.dtype != np.dtype(np.bool_):
    lower_ctx = LoweringRuleContext(
        ctx.lowering_context,
        avals_in=[pred_aval],
        avals_out=[pred_aval.update(dtype=np.bool_)],
        block_shapes=[None],
    )
    pred = lower_fun(lambda x: x != 0, multiple_results=False)(lower_ctx, pred)
  if not args:
    return x
  # Assume x and y, which we check above.
  y, = args
  return arith.select(pred, y, x)


lowering_rules[lax.select_n_p] = _select_n_lowering_rule


def _clamp(min, operand, max):
  res = jnp.maximum(operand, min)
  return jnp.minimum(res, max)


def _clamp_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, min, operand, max):
  """Compute minimum_p(maximum_p(min, operand), max)."""
  return lower_fun(_clamp, multiple_results=False)(ctx, min, operand, max)


lowering_rules[lax.clamp_p] = _clamp_lowering_rule


def _for_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    *args,
    jaxpr,
    nsteps,
    reverse,
    unroll,
    which_linear,
):
  should_discharge = [
      not isinstance(aval, state.AbstractRef) for aval in ctx.avals_in
  ]
  jaxpr, () = state_discharge.discharge_state(
      jaxpr, (), should_discharge=[False, *should_discharge]
  )
  for i in range(nsteps):
    if reverse:
      i = nsteps - i - 1
    i = ir_constant(i)
    lowering_context = ctx.lowering_context.replace(
        block_shapes=[(), *ctx.block_shapes],
    )
    non_ref_args = jaxpr_subcomp(lowering_context, jaxpr, i, *args)
    non_ref_args_iter = iter(non_ref_args)
    args = [
        next(non_ref_args_iter) if s else a
        for a, s in zip(args, should_discharge)
    ]
  return args


lowering_rules[for_loop.for_p] = _for_lowering_rule


def _lower_jaxpr_to_for_loop(ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
                             jaxpr: jax_core.Jaxpr, start: int | ir.Value,
                             num_steps: int | ir.Value, consts, *args,
                             has_loop_index: bool,
                             unroll: int):
  def _run_body(i, args):
    if has_loop_index:
      lowering_context = ctx.lowering_context.replace(
          block_shapes=ctx.block_shapes)
      args = jaxpr_subcomp(lowering_context, jaxpr, *consts, i, *args)
    else:
      del i
      lowering_context = ctx.lowering_context.replace(
          block_shapes=ctx.block_shapes[:len(consts)]
          + ctx.block_shapes[len(consts) + 1:],
      )
      args = jaxpr_subcomp(lowering_context, jaxpr, *consts, *args)
    return args

  if (
      not isinstance(start, ir.Value)
      and not isinstance(num_steps, ir.Value)
      and num_steps == unroll
  ):
    # No need for an scf.For. We can just unroll completely
    for i in range(start, start + num_steps):
      args = _run_body(
          ir_constant(i, mlir_type=_dtype_to_ir_type(jnp.dtype("int32"))),
          args,
      )
    return args
  if unroll != 1:
    raise NotImplementedError(
        f"Only unroll={num_steps=} and unroll=1 supported. Got {unroll=}.")
  lbd = _ensure_mlir_value(start, pallas_core.index_map_grid_aval)
  ubd = arith.addi(lbd, _ensure_mlir_value(num_steps, pallas_core.index_map_grid_aval))
  step = ir_constant(1, mlir_type=_dtype_to_ir_type(jnp.dtype("int32")))
  for_op = scf.ForOp(lbd, ubd, step, args)
  with ir.InsertionPoint(for_op.body):
    iv = for_op.induction_variable
    inner_args = for_op.inner_iter_args
    inner_out = _run_body(iv, inner_args)
    scf.YieldOp(inner_out)
  return for_op.results


def _scan_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    *args,
    jaxpr: jax_core.ClosedJaxpr,
    linear: tuple[bool, ...],
    length: int,
    reverse: bool,
    unroll: bool | int,
    num_consts: int,
    num_carry: int,
    _split_transpose: bool,
):
  del _split_transpose
  # Can only handle fori_loop-like scans
  num_extensive = len(args) - num_consts - num_carry
  if num_extensive: raise NotImplementedError
  if reverse: raise NotImplementedError
  del linear, num_extensive, reverse

  jaxpr, jaxpr_consts = jaxpr.jaxpr, jaxpr.consts
  if jaxpr_consts: raise NotImplementedError
  del jaxpr_consts

  jaxpr, has_loop_index = pallas_utils.pattern_match_scan_to_fori_loop(
      jaxpr, num_consts, num_carry
  )
  consts, args = split_list(args, [num_consts])
  consts_avals, args_avals = split_list(ctx.avals_in, [num_consts])
  if has_loop_index:
    loop_index_start, *args = args
    args_avals = args_avals[1:]
  else:
    loop_index_start = 0
  consts = map(_ensure_mlir_value, consts, consts_avals)
  args = map(_ensure_mlir_value, args, args_avals)
  out = _lower_jaxpr_to_for_loop(
      ctx, jaxpr, loop_index_start, length,
      consts, *args, has_loop_index=has_loop_index,
      unroll=unroll)
  if has_loop_index:
    out = [ir_constant(length,
                       mlir_type=_dtype_to_ir_type(jnp.dtype('int32'))),
           *out]
  return out
lowering_rules[lax.scan_p] = _scan_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.scan_p)


def _lower_while_via_fori(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    *args,
    fori_jaxpr,
    cond_nconsts,
    cond_jaxpr,
    body_nconsts,
    body_jaxpr,
):
  _, body_consts, carry = split_list(args, [cond_nconsts, body_nconsts])
  (lb, ub), args = carry[:2], carry[2:]
  for_out = _lower_jaxpr_to_for_loop(
      ctx.replace(
          block_shapes=ctx.block_shapes[: body_nconsts + 1]
          + ctx.block_shapes[body_nconsts + 2 :],
      ),
      fori_jaxpr,
      lb,
      arith.subi(ub, lb),
      body_consts,
      *args,
      has_loop_index=True,
      unroll=1,
  )
  return [ub, ub, *for_out]


def _while_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    *args,
    cond_nconsts,
    cond_jaxpr,
    body_nconsts,
    body_jaxpr,
):
  # First try to lower via a simpler fori loop, which may optimize better.
  fori_jaxpr, _ = pallas_utils.pattern_match_while_to_fori_loop(
      cond_jaxpr, cond_nconsts, body_jaxpr, body_nconsts
  )
  if fori_jaxpr is not None:
    return _lower_while_via_fori(
        ctx,
        *args,
        fori_jaxpr=fori_jaxpr,
        cond_nconsts=cond_nconsts,
        cond_jaxpr=cond_jaxpr,
        body_nconsts=body_nconsts,
        body_jaxpr=body_jaxpr,
    )

  # If we fail conversion to fori, fallback to an ordinary while loop.
  cond_consts, body_consts, carry = split_list(
      args, [cond_nconsts, body_nconsts]
  )
  cond_const_block_shapes, body_const_block_shapes, carry_block_shapes = (
      split_list(ctx.block_shapes, [cond_nconsts, body_nconsts])
  )
  carry_types = [a.type for a in carry]
  while_op = scf.WhileOp(carry_types, carry)

  before_block = while_op.before.blocks.append(*carry_types)
  with ir.InsertionPoint.at_block_begin(before_block):
    cond_args = [*cond_consts, *before_block.arguments]
    [cond] = jaxpr_subcomp(
        ctx.lowering_context.replace(
            block_shapes=[*cond_const_block_shapes, *carry_block_shapes]
        ),
        cond_jaxpr.jaxpr,
        *cond_args,
    )
    scf.condition(cond, before_block.arguments)

  after_block = while_op.after.blocks.append(*carry_types)
  with ir.InsertionPoint.at_block_begin(after_block):
    body_args = [*body_consts, *after_block.arguments]
    loop_out = jaxpr_subcomp(
        ctx.lowering_context.replace(
            block_shapes=[*body_const_block_shapes, *carry_block_shapes],
        ),
        body_jaxpr.jaxpr,
        *body_args,
    )
    if loop_out:
      scf.yield_(loop_out)
  return list(while_op.results)


lowering_rules[lax.while_p] = _while_lowering_rule

def _cond_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args, branches):
  index, *args = args
  constant_index = _fold_and_get_constant_value(index)

  if constant_index is not None:
    return jaxpr_subcomp(
        ctx.lowering_context.replace(block_shapes=ctx.block_shapes[1:]), branches[constant_index].jaxpr, *args
    )
  aval_to_ir_type_with_fn = functools.partial(
      aval_to_ir_type, ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn
  )
  out_types = map(aval_to_ir_type_with_fn, ctx.avals_out)
  pred = arith.cmpi(
      arith.CmpIPredicate.ne, index, ir_constant(0, index.type)
  )
  if_op = scf.IfOp(pred, out_types, hasElse=True)
  lowering_context = ctx.lowering_context.replace(
      block_shapes=ctx.block_shapes[1:],
  )
  with ir.InsertionPoint(if_op.then_block):
    # TODO(b/300272065): Use `scf.IndexSwitchOp` instead of a cascade of
    # if/else.
    if len(branches) > 2:
      out = _cond_lowering_rule(
          ctx,
          arith.subi(index, ir_constant(1, index.type)),
          *args,
          branches=branches[1:],
      )
    else:
      out = jaxpr_subcomp(lowering_context, branches[1].jaxpr, *args)
    scf.YieldOp(out)
  with ir.InsertionPoint(if_op.else_block):
    out = jaxpr_subcomp(lowering_context, branches[0].jaxpr, *args)
    scf.YieldOp(out)
  return if_op.results


lowering_rules[lax.cond_p] = _cond_lowering_rule


def _pjit_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args, jaxpr, **_):
  lowering_context = ctx.lowering_context.replace(block_shapes=ctx.block_shapes)
  return jaxpr_subcomp(lowering_context, jaxpr.jaxpr, *args)


lowering_rules[pjit.pjit_p] = _pjit_lowering_rule


def _mesh_cast_lowering_rule(ctx, x, dst_sharding):
  return x
lowering_rules[pjit.mesh_cast_p] = _mesh_cast_lowering_rule


def _custom_jvp_call_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    *args,
    call_jaxpr: jax_core.Jaxpr,
    jvp_jaxpr_fun: lu.WrappedFun,
    num_consts: int,
    symbolic_zeros: bool,
):
  del jvp_jaxpr_fun
  if symbolic_zeros: raise NotImplementedError
  if num_consts: raise NotImplementedError
  if call_jaxpr.consts: raise NotImplementedError
  lowering_context = ctx.lowering_context.replace(block_shapes=ctx.block_shapes)
  return jaxpr_subcomp(lowering_context, call_jaxpr.jaxpr, *args)


lowering_rules[custom_derivatives.custom_jvp_call_p] = (
    _custom_jvp_call_lowering_rule)


def _debug_callback_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args, **kwargs):
  del ctx, args, kwargs
  # No-op debug callbacks in Mosaic for now
  return []


lowering_rules[debugging.debug_callback_p] = _debug_callback_lowering_rule


def _program_id_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *, axis: int):

  if ctx.lowering_context.user_grid_indices is None:
    raise ValueError(
        f"program id: {axis} was passed, but user did not provide a grid."
    )
  length = len(ctx.lowering_context.user_grid_indices)
  if not (0 <= axis < length):
    raise ValueError(
        f"user passed in program id with axis: {axis}, but grid only has"
        f" length: {length}"
    )
  return ctx.lowering_context.user_grid_indices[axis]
lowering_rules[primitives.program_id_p] = _program_id_lowering_rule

def _num_programs_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *, axis: int):
  mapped_axes = set(ctx.lowering_context.mapped_dims)
  seen_user_axes = 0
  for i in range(ctx.lowering_context.grid_rank):
    seen_user_axes += int(i not in mapped_axes)
    if seen_user_axes == axis + 1:
      break
  else:
    raise ValueError(
        f"user passed in program id with axis: {axis}, but grid only has"
        f" length: {len(ctx.lowering_context.grid_rank)}"
    )
  return tpu.iteration_bound(i)
lowering_rules[primitives.num_programs_p] = _num_programs_lowering_rule


def _repeat_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, repeats, axis):
  (out_aval,) = ctx.avals_out
  return tpu.repeat(
      aval_to_ir_type(
          ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, out_aval
      ),
      x,
      axis,
      repeats,
  )


lowering_rules[tpu_primitives.repeat_p] = _repeat_lowering_rule


def _roll_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, shift, *, axis, stride, stride_axis
):
  (out_aval,) = ctx.avals_out
  return tpu.dynamic_rotate(
      aval_to_ir_type(
          ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, out_aval
      ),
      x,
      shift,
      axis,
      stride=stride,
      stride_dimension=stride_axis,
  )


lowering_rules[tpu_primitives.roll_p] = _roll_lowering_rule


def _slice_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, limit_indices, start_indices, strides
):
  """Lowers a slice to vector dialect."""
  (aval_out,) = ctx.avals_out
  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, aval_out
  )
  if strides is None:
    strides = [1] * len(start_indices)
  sizes = np.array(limit_indices) - np.array(start_indices)
  return vector.extract_strided_slice(
      out_type, x, start_indices, sizes, strides
  )


lowering_rules[lax.slice_p] = _slice_lowering_rule


def _xor_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, y):
  x, y = _bcast(x, y, *ctx.avals_in, *ctx.avals_out)
  return arith.xori(x, y)


lowering_rules[lax.xor_p] = _xor_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.xor_p)


def _shift_left_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, d):
  x, d = _bcast(x, d, *ctx.avals_in, *ctx.avals_out)
  return arith.shli(x, d)


lowering_rules[lax.shift_left_p] = _shift_left_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.shift_left_p)


def _shift_right_arithmetic_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, d):
  x, d = _bcast(x, d, *ctx.avals_in, *ctx.avals_out)
  return arith.shrsi(x, d)


lowering_rules[lax.shift_right_arithmetic_p] = _shift_right_arithmetic_lowering_rule
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.shift_right_arithmetic_p)


def _shift_right_logical_lowering_rules(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, d):
  x, d = _bcast(x, d, *ctx.avals_in, *ctx.avals_out)
  return arith.shrui(x, d)


lowering_rules[lax.shift_right_logical_p] = _shift_right_logical_lowering_rules
skip_mlir_conversions.add(lax.shift_right_logical_p)


def _erf_inv_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x):
  return lower_fun(
      pallas_utils.erf_inv_lowering_helper, multiple_results=False,
  )(ctx, x)


lowering_rules[lax.erf_inv_p] = _erf_inv_lowering_rule


def _reciprocal_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, approx):
  if not isinstance(x.type.element_type, ir.F32Type):
    raise ValueError("Only float32 is supported.")
  return tpu.reciprocal(x, approx=approx)


lowering_rules[primitives.reciprocal_p] = _reciprocal_lowering_rule

def _bitcast_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, ty):
  del ty
  (out_aval,) = ctx.avals_out
  return tpu.bitcast(
      aval_to_ir_type(
          ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, out_aval
      ),
      x,
  )

lowering_rules[tpu_primitives.bitcast_p] = _bitcast_lowering_rule

def _bitcast_convert_type_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, x, *, new_dtype):
  (in_aval, ) = ctx.avals_in
  (out_aval,) = ctx.avals_out
  old_bitwidth = pallas_utils.dtype_bitwidth(in_aval.dtype)
  new_bitwidth = pallas_utils.dtype_bitwidth(new_dtype)
  if old_bitwidth != new_bitwidth:
    raise NotImplementedError("Changing bitwidths not supported.")
  return tpu.bitcast(
      aval_to_ir_type(
          ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, out_aval
      ),
      x,
  )
lowering_rules[lax.bitcast_convert_type_p] = _bitcast_convert_type_lowering_rule


def _alloc_value(
    aval: jax_core.AbstractValue, *, ctx: LoweringRuleContext
) -> ir.Value:
  if isinstance(aval, pallas_core.AbstractMemoryRef):
    memspace = _memory_space_to_mosaic_attribute(aval.memory_space)
    if jnp.issubdtype(aval.dtype, pallas_core.semaphore_dtype):
      assert aval.memory_space == TPUMemorySpace.SEMAPHORE
      memref_type = aval_to_ir_type(
          ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
          aval,
          memory_space=TPUMemorySpace.SEMAPHORE,
      )
      return tpu.sem_alloc(memref_type)
    else:
      out_type = ir.MemRefType.get(
          aval.shape,
          _dtype_to_ir_type(aval.dtype, is_kernel_boundary=True),
          memory_space=memspace)
      return memref.alloca(out_type, [], [])
  elif isinstance(aval, tpu_core.AbstractSemaphore):
    memref_type = aval_to_ir_type(
        ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn,
        aval,
        memory_space=TPUMemorySpace.SEMAPHORE,
    )
    return tpu.sem_alloc(memref_type)
  raise NotImplementedError(f"Cannot allocate {type(aval)}.")


def _run_scoped_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *consts, jaxpr):
  out_type = [
      aval_to_ir_type(ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, aval)
      for aval in ctx.avals_out
  ]
  region = tpu.RegionOp(out_type)
  in_avals = [v.aval for v in jaxpr.invars]
  with ctx.lowering_context.grid_name_context():
    jaxpr = pe.convert_constvars_jaxpr(jaxpr)
  with ir.InsertionPoint(region.body):
    alloc_fn = functools.partial(_alloc_value, ctx=ctx)
    args = map(alloc_fn, in_avals)
    block_shapes = tuple(a.shape if isinstance(a, state.AbstractRef) else None
                         for a in in_avals)
    ctx = ctx.lowering_context.replace(
        block_shapes=(*ctx.block_shapes, *block_shapes)
    )
    out = jaxpr_subcomp(ctx, jaxpr, *consts, *args)
    tpu.YieldOp(out)
  return region.results


lowering_rules[primitives.run_scoped_p] = _run_scoped_lowering_rule

def _device_id_to_logical(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, device_id,
    device_id_type: primitives.DeviceIdType):
  if device_id_type is primitives.DeviceIdType.MESH:
    # Mesh means we are passed the mesh coordinates for the device
    device_ids = tree_util.tree_leaves(device_id)
    mesh_strides = ctx.lowering_context.mesh_context.mesh_strides

    i32 = ir.IntegerType.get_signless(32)
    if len(device_ids) == 0:
      return arith.constant(i32, 0)
    return functools.reduce(
        arith.addi,
        (
            arith.muli(a, arith.constant(i32, b))
            for a, b in zip(device_ids, mesh_strides)
        ),
    )
  elif device_id_type is primitives.DeviceIdType.LOGICAL:
    return device_id
  raise NotImplementedError(f"Unsupported device id type: {device_id_type}")


def _semaphore_read_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    *args,
    args_tree,
):
  sem_aval, sem_transforms_avals = tree_util.tree_unflatten(args_tree, ctx.avals_in)
  primitives.check_sem_avals(
      sem_aval,
      sem_transforms_avals,
      "read",
      allowed_semaphore_types={
          tpu_core.dma_semaphore,
          pallas_core.semaphore,
          pallas_core.barrier_semaphore,
          pallas_core.SEMAPHORE_INTERPRET_DTYPE,
      },
  )
  sem, transforms = tree_util.tree_unflatten(args_tree, args)
  sem, _ = _transform_ref(sem, sem_aval.dtype, sem_aval.shape, transforms)
  return tpu.sem_read(sem)


lowering_rules[primitives.semaphore_read_p] = _semaphore_read_lowering_rule

def _semaphore_signal_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    *args,
    args_tree,
    device_id_type: primitives.DeviceIdType,
):
  sem_aval, _, _, _, _ = tree_util.tree_unflatten(args_tree, ctx.avals_in)
  sem, transforms, value, device_id, core_index = tree_util.tree_unflatten(
      args_tree, args
  )
  sem, _ = _transform_ref(sem, sem_aval.dtype, sem_aval.shape, transforms)
  if device_id is not None:
    device_id = _device_id_to_logical(ctx, device_id, device_id_type)
  tpu.sem_signal(sem, value, device_id=device_id, core_id=core_index)
  return []


lowering_rules[primitives.semaphore_signal_p] = (
    _semaphore_signal_lowering_rule)


def _semaphore_wait_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args, args_tree):
  sem_aval, _, _ = tree_util.tree_unflatten(args_tree, ctx.avals_in)
  sem, transforms, value = tree_util.tree_unflatten(args_tree, args)
  sem, _ = _transform_ref(sem, sem_aval.dtype, sem_aval.shape, transforms)
  tpu.sem_wait(sem, value)
  return []
lowering_rules[primitives.semaphore_wait_p] = _semaphore_wait_lowering_rule


def _dma_start_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext,
    *args,
    tree,
    device_id_type: primitives.DeviceIdType,
    priority: int,
):
  (
      src_ref,
      src_transforms,
      dst_ref,
      dst_transforms,
      sem,
      sem_transforms,
      src_sem,
      src_sem_transforms,
      device_id,
  ) = tree_util.tree_unflatten(tree, args)
  (src_ref_aval, _, dst_ref_aval, _, sem_aval, _, src_sem_aval, _, _) = (
      tree_util.tree_unflatten(tree, ctx.avals_in)
  )
  if src_ref_aval.dtype == jnp.bool_:
    raise NotImplementedError("DMAs with bool dtypes are not supported.")
  block_shapes = tree_util.tree_unflatten(tree, ctx.block_shapes)
  src_ref_block_shape, dst_ref_block_shape = block_shapes[0], block_shapes[2]
  src_ref, _ = _transform_ref(
      src_ref, src_ref_aval.dtype, src_ref_block_shape, src_transforms
  )
  if src_sem is not None:
    src_sem, _ = _transform_ref(
        src_sem, src_sem_aval.dtype, src_sem_aval.shape, src_sem_transforms
    )
  dst_ref, _ = _transform_ref(
      dst_ref, dst_ref_aval.dtype, dst_ref_block_shape, dst_transforms
  )
  sem, _ = _transform_ref(sem, sem_aval.dtype, sem_aval.shape, sem_transforms)
  if device_id is not None:
    device_id = _device_id_to_logical(ctx, device_id, device_id_type)
  priority_kwarg = {"priority": priority}
  if jaxlib_version < (0, 5, 4):
    priority_kwarg = {}
  tpu.enqueue_dma(
      src_ref,
      dst_ref,
      sem,
      source_semaphore=src_sem,
      device_id=device_id,
      **priority_kwarg,
  )
  return []


lowering_rules[tpu_primitives.dma_start_p] = _dma_start_lowering_rule


def _dma_wait_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args, tree,
                            device_id_type: primitives.DeviceIdType):
  del device_id_type
  (src, src_transforms, dst, transforms, sem, sem_transforms, _, _, _) = (
      tree_util.tree_unflatten(tree, args)
  )
  (src_aval, _, dst_aval, _, sem_aval, _, _, _, _) = tree_util.tree_unflatten(
      tree, ctx.avals_in
  )
  block_shapes = tree_util.tree_unflatten(tree, ctx.block_shapes)
  ref_block_shape = block_shapes[2]
  src, _ = _transform_ref(src, src_aval.dtype, src_aval.shape, src_transforms)
  dst, _ = _transform_ref(dst, dst_aval.dtype, ref_block_shape, transforms)
  sem, _ = _transform_ref(sem, sem_aval.dtype, sem_aval.shape, sem_transforms)
  if ctx.forward_compatible or is_cloud_tpu_older_than(2025, 2, 12):
    # TODO(mvoz): Remove once six months have passed. b/395630795
    if hasattr(src_aval, "memory_space"):
      src_memory_space = _memory_space_to_mosaic_attribute(src_aval.memory_space)
      smem_space = ir.Attribute.parse("#tpu.memory_space<smem>")
      src_is_smem = src_memory_space == smem_space
      wait_ref = src if src_is_smem else dst
    else:
      wait_ref = dst
    # Legacy instruction backwards compatibility.
    tpu.wait_dma(sem, wait_ref)
  else:
    tpu.wait_dma2(sem, src, dst)
  return []

lowering_rules[tpu_primitives.dma_wait_p] = _dma_wait_lowering_rule

def _axis_index_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *, axis_name: Hashable):
  grid_names = ctx.lowering_context.grid_names
  if grid_names and axis_name in grid_names:
    # We are querying a named axis corresponding to a grid dimension.
    return _program_id_lowering_rule(ctx, axis=grid_names.index(axis_name))
  # We are querying a named axis corresponding to a mesh dimension.
  device_id = tpu.device_id()
  mesh_context = ctx.lowering_context.mesh_context
  if mesh_context is None:
    raise ValueError("Mesh context is not set.")
  mesh_shape = mesh_context.mesh_shape
  axis_names = mesh_context.axis_names
  axis_index = axis_names.index(axis_name)
  axis_size = ir_constant(mesh_shape[axis_index])
  minor_divisor = ir_constant(
      np.prod(mesh_shape[axis_index + 1 :], dtype=np.int32)
  )
  return arith.remsi(arith.divsi(device_id, minor_divisor), axis_size)
lowering_rules[lax.axis_index_p] = _axis_index_rule

def _get_barrier_semaphore_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext):
  memref_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, ctx.avals_out[0]
  )
  return tpu.sem_barrier(memref_type)
lowering_rules[tpu_primitives.get_barrier_semaphore_p] = _get_barrier_semaphore_rule


def _delay_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, nanos: int):
  tpu.delay(nanos)
  return []


lowering_rules[tpu_primitives.delay_p] = _delay_rule


def _debug_print_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args, fmt: str, has_placeholders: bool
):
  is_scalar_inputs = [aval.shape == () for aval in ctx.avals_in]
  is_all_scalars = all(is_scalar_inputs)
  is_single_vector = len(is_scalar_inputs) == 1 and not is_scalar_inputs[0]
  if not (is_all_scalars or is_single_vector):
    raise ValueError(
        "All inputs to debug_print must be all scalars or a single vector, but"
        f" got {ctx.avals_in}"
    )

  # Scalar case.
  if is_all_scalars:
    primitives.check_debug_print_format(fmt, *args)
    if has_placeholders:
      if not all(
          isinstance(arg.type, ir.IntegerType) and arg.type.width == 32
          for arg in args
      ):
        raise TypeError(
            "All arguments must be 32-bit integers when using"
            " placeholders (`{...}`). If you need to print values of other types,"
            " remove placeholders from the format string."
        )

    # TPU expects $0, $1 etc as placeholders.
      fmt = "".join(
          f"{text}${idx}"
          for idx, (text, _, _, _) in enumerate(string.Formatter().parse(fmt))
      )

    tpu.log(args, fmt, formatted=has_placeholders)
    return ()

  # Vector case.
  # Copy the array to vmem for logging.
  # Note that the shape of the array must be explicitly provided here. This is
  # because the underlying implementation aligns shapes to tile boundaries,
  # potentially altering the original shape and making it unrecoverable.
  if len(ctx.avals_in) != 1:
    raise ValueError(
        "Only one vector input to debug_print is supported."
    )
  (aval,) = ctx.avals_in
  (arg,) = args

  if not has_placeholders or not fmt.endswith("{}"):
    raise ValueError("For vector input, the format string must end with {}.")

  fmt = fmt[:-2]

  region = tpu.RegionOp(())
  with ir.InsertionPoint(region.body):
    element_type = _dtype_to_ir_type(aval.dtype)
    ref_type = ir.MemRefType.get(
        aval.shape,
        element_type,
        memory_space=ir.Attribute.parse("#tpu.memory_space<vmem>"),
    )
    ref = memref.alloca(ref_type, [], [])

    index_type = ir.IndexType.get()
    zero = arith.constant(index_type, 0)
    indices = [zero] * len(aval.shape)
    vector.store(arg, ref, indices)
    tpu.log_buffer(ref, aval.shape, fmt)
    tpu.yield_([])
  return ()


lowering_rules[primitives.debug_print_p] = _debug_print_rule


def _prng_seed_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *seeds):
  del ctx
  # In the KeyScalarBundle case we unpack the bundle and set the seed with
  # the list of scalars.
  if len(seeds) == 1 and isinstance(seeds[0], KeyScalarBundle):
    tpu.prng_set_seed_32(seeds[0].scalars)
    return []
  # For integer seeds, we can set the seed directly as PRNGSeed32Op natively
  # takes in a list of integers as input.
  all_integers = all(isinstance(seed.type, ir.IntegerType) for seed in seeds)
  if not all_integers:
    seed_types = [seed.type for seed in seeds]
    raise ValueError(f"All seed data must be scalar integers. Got {seed_types}")
  tpu.prng_set_seed_32(seeds)
  return []
lowering_rules[tpu_primitives.prng_seed_p] = _prng_seed_lowering_rule


def _prng_random_bits_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *, shape):
  if len(shape) <= 1:
    # TODO(b/342054464): Support implicit dims for PRNGRandomBitsOp.
    raise NotImplementedError("random_bits only supports rank>=2 outputs.")
  out_aval = ctx.avals_out[0]
  out_type = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, out_aval
  )
  return tpu.prng_random_bits(out_type)
lowering_rules[tpu_primitives.prng_random_bits_p] = _prng_random_bits_lowering_rule


def random_seed_lowering(ctx, seeds, *, impl):
  seed_lowering = lower_fun(impl.seed, multiple_results=False)
  return seed_lowering(ctx, seeds)
lowering_rules[prng.random_seed_p] = random_seed_lowering


def random_bits_lowering(ctx, keys, *, bit_width, shape):
  assert bit_width == 32, "Only 32-bit PRNG supported."
  aval, = ctx.avals_in
  impl = aval.dtype._impl
  _proxy_fn = impl.random_bits
  if not pl_random.is_pallas_impl(impl):
    def new_lowering(key, bit_width, shape):
      key = jax.random.key_data(key).astype(jnp.uint32)
      return impl.random_bits(key, bit_width, shape)
    _proxy_fn = new_lowering
  bits_lowering = lower_fun(_proxy_fn, multiple_results=False)
  return bits_lowering(ctx, keys, bit_width=bit_width, shape=shape)
lowering_rules[prng.random_bits_p] = random_bits_lowering


def random_fold_in_lowering(ctx, keys, msgs):
  keys_aval, _ = ctx.avals_in
  impl = keys_aval.dtype._impl
  fold_in_lowering = lower_fun(impl.fold_in, multiple_results=False)
  return fold_in_lowering(ctx, keys, msgs)
lowering_rules[prng.random_fold_in_p] = random_fold_in_lowering


def random_unwrap_lowering(ctx, key):
  keys_aval = ctx.avals_in[0]
  impl = keys_aval.dtype._impl
  if not pl_random.is_pallas_impl(impl):
    return key
  assert isinstance(key, KeyScalarBundle)
  # Convert to a vector.
  if tuple(key.key_shape) != (1, 1):
    raise NotImplementedError(
      "Seed key_data of shape != (1, 1) not supported. "
      f"Got: {key.key_shape}")
  scalar = key.scalars[0]
  out_type = ir.VectorType.get(
      key.key_shape, _dtype_to_ir_type(jnp.dtype('int32'))
  )
  val = vector.broadcast(out_type, scalar)
  return val
lowering_rules[prng.random_unwrap_p] = random_unwrap_lowering


def random_wrap_lowering(ctx, key_data, *, impl):
  del ctx
  if not pl_random.is_pallas_impl(impl):
    return key_data
  if isinstance(key_data.type, ir.VectorType):
    # If the key data lives in vregs, need to unpack it to sregs.
    key_data_list = []
    key_data_shape = key_data.type.shape
    if len(key_data_shape) != 2:
      raise NotImplementedError("Seed key_data must be 2D.")
    if tuple(key_data_shape) != (1, 1):
      raise NotImplementedError(
        "Seed key_data of shape != (1, 1) not supported. "
        f"Got: {key_data_shape}")
    for i in range(key_data_shape[1]):
      key_data_list.append(vector.ExtractOp(key_data, [], [0, i]))
    return KeyScalarBundle(
        scalars=key_data_list, key_shape=tuple(key_data_shape))
  if isinstance(key_data, KeyScalarBundle):
    return key_data
  else:
    raise NotImplementedError(f"key_data wrap {type(key_data)}")

lowering_rules[prng.random_wrap_p] = random_wrap_lowering

def _checkify_lowering_rule(
    ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *err_args, err_tree, debug):
  if not tpu_core.runtime_assert_enabled():
    if debug:
      return []
    else:
      raise LoweringException("Non-debug check must be functionalized. "
                              "Enable runtime asserts with "
                              "--jax_pallas_enable_runtime_assert "
                              "or functionalize with checkify.check.")

  assert ctx.lowering_context.ir_context.allow_unregistered_dialects, (
    "allow_unregistered_dialects must be set to True for "
    "runtime assert check.")
  error = jax.tree.unflatten(err_tree, err_args)
  assert len(error._pred) == 1
  assert len(error._metadata) == 1
  assert len(error._payload) == 1
  pred = list(error._pred.items())[0][1]
  metadata = list(error._metadata.items())[0]
  payload = list(error._payload.items())[0][1]
  exception_tree = metadata[1]
  exception = jax.tree.unflatten(exception_tree, payload)
  assert isinstance(exception, checkify.FailedCheckError)

  # check_p has an inverted predicate compared to assert,
  # so we need to compute not(pred) here.
  out_scalar_type = _dtype_to_ir_type(jnp.dtype('bool'))
  minus_one = ir_constant(-1, out_scalar_type)
  not_pred = arith.xori(pred, minus_one)
  attrs = {"msg": ir.StringAttr.get(exception.fmt_string)}
  ir.Operation.create("cf.assert",
                      operands=(not_pred,),
                      attributes=attrs)
  return []
lowering_rules[checkify.check_p] = _checkify_lowering_rule

def _threefry2x32_lowering(ctx, k1, k2, m1, m2):
  def _lower_fun(k1, k2, m1, m2):
    with jax.named_scope("threefry2x32"):
      res = prng._threefry2x32_lowering(k1, k2, m1, m2, use_rolled_loops=False)
    return res

  threefry_lowering = lower_fun(_lower_fun, multiple_results=True)
  return threefry_lowering(ctx, k1, k2, m1, m2)


lowering_rules[prng.threefry2x32_p] = _threefry2x32_lowering


def _iota_2x32_shape_lowering(ctx, *, shape):
  total_elements = np.prod(shape)
  if total_elements > np.iinfo(jnp.int32).max:
    raise NotImplementedError(f"Iota with >{np.iinfo(jnp.int32).max} items.")

  def _lower_fun(shape):
    iota_data = jnp.zeros(shape, dtype=jnp.int32)
    multiplier = 1
    for dim in range(len(shape)-1, -1, -1):
      counts_lo = lax.broadcasted_iota(
          dtype=jnp.int32, shape=shape, dimension=dim
      )
      iota_data += counts_lo * multiplier
      multiplier *= shape[dim]
    counts_hi = jnp.zeros(shape, dtype=jnp.int32)
    return counts_hi, iota_data

  iota_lowering = lower_fun(_lower_fun, multiple_results=True)
  return iota_lowering(ctx, shape=shape)


lowering_rules[prng.iota_2x32_shape_p] = _iota_2x32_shape_lowering


def _pad_lowering_rule(ctx: LoweringRuleContext, *args, **kwargs):
  operand, padding_value = args
  padding_config = kwargs["padding_config"]

  out_type: ir.VectorType = aval_to_ir_type(
      ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn, ctx.avals_in[0]
  )
  if not isinstance(out_type, ir.VectorType):
    raise NotImplementedError("Only vector types are supported.")

  for axis, (low, high, interior) in enumerate(padding_config):
    if low == 0 and high == 0 and interior == 0:
      continue

    def _pad(val):
      shape = list(operand.type.shape)
      shape[axis] = val
      pad_vec_type = ir.VectorType.get(
          shape,
          operand.type.element_type,
      )

      if isinstance(padding_value, ir.OpResult):
        pad = vector.broadcast(pad_vec_type, padding_value)
      else:
        scalar_attr = ir.FloatAttr.get(operand.type.element_type, padding_value)
        pad = arith.ConstantOp(
            pad_vec_type,
            ir.DenseElementsAttr.get_splat(
                pad_vec_type,
                scalar_attr,
            ),
        ).result
      return pad

    if low != 0:
      pad_low = _pad(low)
      new_shape = out_type.shape
      new_shape[axis] += low
      out_type = ir.VectorType.get(
          new_shape,
          out_type.element_type,
      )
      operand = tpu.concatenate(out_type, [pad_low, operand], dimension=axis)

    if high != 0:
      pad_high = _pad(high)
      new_shape = out_type.shape
      new_shape[axis] += high
      out_type = ir.VectorType.get(
          new_shape,
          out_type.element_type,
      )
      operand = tpu.concatenate(out_type, [operand, pad_high], dimension=axis)

    if interior > 0:
      raise NotImplementedError("Not implemented: interior padding")

  return operand


lowering_rules[lax.pad_p] = _pad_lowering_rule


def _platform_index_lowering(
    ctx: mlir.LoweringRuleContext,
    *,
    platforms: Sequence[Sequence[str]],
    has_default: bool,
):
  for i, ps in enumerate(platforms):
    # note - slightly odd structure here, as platforms is a seq[seq[str]]
    if "mosaic" in ps:
      return ir_constant(i)

  if has_default:
    return ir_constant(len(platforms))

  raise NotImplementedError(
      "No mosaic or default platform indexing rule found."
  )


lowering_rules[jax._src.lax.control_flow.platform_index_p] = _platform_index_lowering


def _dim_as_value_lowering(ctx: mlir.LoweringRuleContext, *, dim):
  placeholder = ctx.lowering_context.dynamic_shape_replacement_fn((dim,))[0]
  return ir_constant(
      placeholder, mlir_type=_dtype_to_ir_type(jnp.dtype("int32"))
  )


import jax._src.export.shape_poly as shape_poly

lowering_rules[shape_poly.dim_as_value_p] = _dim_as_value_lowering